How to Think Like a Woman

How to Think Like a Woman Plot Summary

Introduction

In the scholarly enclave of Cambridge during the late 17th century, a remarkable woman navigated the rigid boundaries of gender with extraordinary intellectual courage. Damaris Cudworth Masham, daughter of the prominent philosopher Ralph Cudworth and close friend of John Locke, emerged as one of the most significant female philosophical voices of her era despite living in a world where women's minds were systematically devalued. While her male contemporaries enjoyed formal education and institutional support, Masham carved out her intellectual identity through determination, strategic relationships, and an unwavering belief in women's rational capacities. What makes Masham's story particularly compelling is how she transformed the constraints of her domestic life into philosophical insight. From her position as wife, mother, and hostess at Oates in Essex, she developed a distinctive philosophical voice that challenged prevailing notions about women's intellectual capabilities. Through her published works and correspondence with leading thinkers of the age, Masham demonstrated that profound philosophical thinking could emerge from lived experience rather than just academic training. Her life illuminates both the extraordinary barriers faced by thinking women in early modern England and the ingenious strategies they developed to claim intellectual authority in a world determined to deny it to them.

Chapter 1: Early Life: The Philosopher's Daughter

In the scholarly enclave of Cambridge during the mid-17th century, young Damaris Cudworth grew up in an environment steeped in intellectual pursuit. As the daughter of Ralph Cudworth, Master of Christ's College and a prominent Cambridge Platonist philosopher, she inhabited a world where ideas flowed freely, though primarily among men. The Cudworth home at Christ's College served as both residence and intellectual salon, where distinguished thinkers gathered to debate metaphysics, theology, and natural philosophy. Despite the patriarchal norms of the era, Ralph Cudworth took an unusual interest in his daughter's education. While most girls of her station received minimal instruction focused on domestic skills, Damaris was permitted access to her father's extensive library. Here, among leather-bound volumes of Plato, Descartes, and theological treatises, she developed a formidable intellect. Her father's philosophical work, which emphasized reason as a divine gift bestowed equally upon all humans, likely influenced her developing belief that women possessed the same intellectual capacities as men. Cambridge life afforded Damaris unique opportunities. Occasionally, learned women like Anne Conway would visit the Cudworth household, providing rare examples of female intellectual engagement. These encounters planted seeds that would later flourish in Masham's philosophical writings. Though formal university education remained closed to women, Damaris absorbed knowledge through her father's books and conversations, developing particular interest in questions of morality, religious tolerance, and human understanding. As she matured, Damaris became known for her quick wit and intellectual curiosity. Contemporaries described her as "lively, very bright, intellectually disposed and accomplished." Yet even in this relatively privileged environment, she encountered the limitations imposed on women. She could listen to scholarly debates but rarely participate; she could read philosophical works but had few outlets to express her own ideas. This tension between intellectual capability and social constraint would shape her philosophical outlook and later writings. The Cambridge of Damaris's youth provided both inspiration and frustration – a place where knowledge flourished but remained largely the domain of men. This paradox instilled in her a determination to claim intellectual space for herself and, eventually, advocate for women's right to philosophical discourse. The foundations of her later philosophical contributions were built in these formative years, as she navigated the boundaries between the scholarly world she inhabited and the limitations society placed upon her gender.

Chapter 2: Intellectual Awakening and Correspondence with Locke

By her early twenties, Damaris Cudworth had developed a philosophical mind that craved intellectual engagement beyond what was typically available to women. Her letters from this period reveal a woman grappling with profound questions about knowledge, faith, and her own capabilities. In correspondence with John Locke, whom she met through mutual acquaintances, she confessed to "different sentiments from those I now have," indicating an evolving intellectual journey and willingness to reconsider her positions – a hallmark of true philosophical thinking. This relationship with Locke proved pivotal in her intellectual development. Their correspondence began as an exchange of ideas but evolved into a deep friendship that would span decades. Locke recognized her philosophical acumen, engaging with her as an intellectual equal rather than dismissing her thoughts as many men of the era might have done. Through their letters, Damaris refined her thinking on empiricism, religious tolerance, and moral philosophy – topics that would later feature prominently in her published works. Yet Damaris's pursuit of knowledge was not without internal conflict. She wrote of experiencing "Fitts" when attempting to express her ideas, suggesting the anxiety that came with stepping beyond prescribed gender roles. "I may have different sentiments from those I now have," she noted, revealing both intellectual humility and the psychological burden of challenging established thinking. This struggle between intellectual ambition and social expectation created what modern scholars might recognize as performance anxiety – a common experience for women entering male-dominated intellectual spaces. The societal pressures on Damaris intensified as she approached her mid-twenties. Marriage was the expected path for women of her station, yet she harbored reservations about how matrimony might constrain her intellectual life. In a letter to Locke, she expressed concern about potential suitors: "I am not fond of grovelling!" This reluctance stemmed not from opposition to marriage itself, but from fear that the wrong match would subordinate her mind to domestic duties and her husband's will. Her correspondence reveals a woman determined to maintain intellectual autonomy even while navigating the marriage market. Despite these challenges, Damaris continued to cultivate her philosophical thinking. She engaged with contemporary debates about reason and faith, the nature of knowledge, and moral philosophy. Her letters show a mind grappling with complex ideas while simultaneously navigating the social expectations placed upon her gender. This dual consciousness – thinking both as a philosopher and as a woman aware of society's constraints – would become a defining characteristic of her later philosophical contributions.

Chapter 3: Marriage, Motherhood, and Philosophical Pursuits

At age twenty-six, Damaris Cudworth married Sir Francis Masham, a widower with eight children from his previous marriage. This union marked a significant transition in her life, bringing new domestic responsibilities while testing her resolve to maintain her intellectual pursuits. Her letters from this period reveal the complex reality of her new situation: "The Business of this World Almost wholly imploys him when he is at home, so that I have very little of His Company." Far from Cambridge's intellectual stimulation, she found herself in rural Essex, managing a large household with limited opportunities for scholarly conversation. The isolation of country life weighed heavily on Damaris. She described feeling "confined... to the society of a set of silly females," missing the intellectual engagement she had previously enjoyed. The physical distance from academic circles was compounded by the social expectations placed upon her as Lady Masham. Yet even as she fulfilled her duties as wife and stepmother, she maintained her correspondence with Locke, creating a vital intellectual lifeline. "For All my quarrel with you I cannot help telling you that there is scarse any thing I would not give to see you Here in my Closet where I am now writeing to You," she confided to him. Their relationship evolved during this period. With marriage having removed any romantic possibilities between them, Damaris and Locke developed a profound intellectual friendship. He encouraged her to continue her philosophical pursuits, asking for her commentary on his work and urging her to write poetry and philosophy. She responded with growing confidence in her intellectual abilities, despite challenges like poor eyesight that made reading difficult. In one letter, she playfully signed off "like other Authors, Finis," suggesting her emerging identity as a writer in her own right. Yet Damaris struggled with doubts about her place in philosophical discourse. She questioned whether it was appropriate for her to engage in current philosophical debates, writing: "Who was she to tell people how they ought to live?" She worried that philosophy required time away from religious and domestic obligations, creating tension between her intellectual ambitions and societal expectations. "Religion is the Concernment of All Mankind; Philosophy as distinguish'd from It, onely of Those that have a freedome from the Affaires of the World," she observed, articulating the particular challenge faced by women philosophers. The reality of her rural life proved harsher than she initially revealed in her correspondence. Years later, in her philosophical writings, she would describe the isolation of an intelligent woman in the countryside as "an existential nightmare." A smart woman, she noted, was intimidating to local society – her parson too shy to speak with her, her doctor concerned by her peculiarity, her neighbors uncomfortable with her intellectual capacity. "A Subject of Ridicule to one part of them, and of Aversion to the other," was how she characterized the intelligent woman's position. This personal experience of intellectual isolation would profoundly shape her philosophical perspective on women's education and social position.

Chapter 4: Finding Her Voice: Publishing Against the Odds

A dramatic shift in Masham's circumstances occurred when she was thirty-one: John Locke moved into her home at Oates. With William of Orange now king, Locke could safely return to England, and he chose Masham's Essex estate as his primary residence. This arrangement, though unusual, provided Masham with the intellectual companionship she had been missing. Locke brought his extensive library of over four thousand books, his scientific instruments, and most importantly, his philosophical mind into her daily life. This living arrangement sparked rumors and social disapproval. Some accused Locke of being a "pimp," while others questioned the propriety of their relationship. For Masham's husband Francis, the situation must have been uncomfortable, though the financial arrangement with Locke and potential political connections may have mitigated his concerns. Despite these social complications, the arrangement proved intellectually fruitful for Masham. Locke introduced her to prominent thinkers like Isaac Newton, with whom she discussed theology and natural philosophy, and connected her to respected publishers like Awnsham Churchill. Through Locke's influence, Masham gained access to philosophical debates previously closed to her. However, she was not merely Locke's disciple or protégé. Her philosophical interests remained distinctly focused on women's experiences and the forces that inhibited their intellectual development. While Locke's work centered on epistemology and political theory, Masham directed her attention to the practical and moral questions surrounding women's education and social position. This difference in focus reflected her lived experience as a thinking woman in a society that discouraged female intellectual engagement. In 1694, Masham's philosophical trajectory took a decisive turn when Locke shared with her the published correspondence between John Norris and Mary Astell. Reading this exchange between a male philosopher and another thinking woman electrified Masham. She was particularly disturbed by their endorsement of Nicolas Malebranche, a French philosopher who claimed that mothers inflicted irreversible cognitive damage on their babies in the womb. Malebranche's philosophy also suggested that God alone should be the object of human love – a position Masham found both philosophically flawed and humanly impossible. This encounter with Malebranche's ideas through Norris and Astell's correspondence propelled Masham to emerge from "relative obscurity" and write her first book, "A Discourse Concerning the Love of God" (1696). She described the work as flowing from her quill in "a few hours," suggesting the urgency she felt to counter what she viewed as dangerous philosophical errors. The publication marked her transition from private philosophical thinker to public intellectual, willing to risk the censure she knew intelligent women faced in order to defend both sound philosophy and women's intellectual capacity.

Chapter 5: Challenging Malebranche: A Defense of Women's Minds

In "A Discourse Concerning the Love of God," Masham directly challenged Malebranche's philosophy and its endorsement by Norris and Astell. She took particular issue with Malebranche's claim that mothers damaged their unborn children's cognitive abilities through their imaginations. This theory, which blamed women for humanity's intellectual limitations, struck Masham as both scientifically unsound and morally reprehensible. With sharp reasoning, she dismantled Malebranche's argument, pointing out that Scripture placed responsibility for human imperfection on Adam's sin, not Eve's: "As in Adam all died, so in Christ shall all be made alive, I Cor. XV. 22." Masham also rejected Malebranche's assertion that God alone should be the object of human love. She argued that such a position contradicted both human nature and divine intention. "We love our Children, or Friends," she wrote, noting that desire for their well-being naturally accompanies this love. The idea that we must love only God and not other people was, in her view, impossible to fulfill and contrary to God's design for human relationships. She sarcastically observed that "Only Heads cast in Metaphysical Moulds are capable of it," highlighting the impracticality of such philosophical abstractions. Her critique extended to Astell's proposal for a women's college, which Masham saw as participating in the same antisocial trend as Malebranche's philosophy. Rather than retreating from society, Masham believed women needed to engage with it. She argued that knowledge of oneself and the world comes through social interaction and forming loving attachments: "If we lov'd not the Creatures, it is not conceiveable how we should love God." This position reflected her empiricist leanings, as she maintained that human cognitive development begins with seeking pleasure and forming connections with others, eventually leading to knowledge of God through appreciation of creation. Nine years after her first publication, Masham produced her second and final philosophical work, "Occasional Thoughts in Reference to a Vertuous or Christian Life" (1705). This book addressed women's education more directly, inspired by a conversation with women who "expres'd much displeasure at the too general neglect of the Instruction of their Sex." Masham identified the fundamental problem as not merely women's limited educational opportunities but their lack of intellectual freedom. Women were actively discouraged from pursuing knowledge, made to feel that intellectual achievement would make them unattractive and "contemptible." In this work, Masham articulated a vision of women's education that emphasized independent thinking. She argued that self-mastery begins with curiosity and love but requires questioning authority: children, especially girls, were "brought to say, that they do Believe whatever their Teachers tell them they must Believe; whilst in Truth they remain in an ignorant unbelief." True knowledge, she maintained, comes from ideas whose truth is affirmed by one's own mind. This emphasis on intellectual autonomy aligned with her empiricist epistemology while challenging patriarchal educational practices that encouraged women's intellectual dependence.

Chapter 6: Creating an Intellectual Haven at Oates

The Essex estate of Oates, under Masham's influence, transformed from a rural backwater into a vibrant intellectual center. With Locke in residence from 1691 until his death in 1704, the house became a gathering place for some of the most brilliant minds of the era. Isaac Newton visited to discuss theology and natural philosophy, while political figures like Lord Pembroke came to consult with Locke. Masham presided over these gatherings as both hostess and participant, creating a rare space where a woman could engage directly in philosophical conversation. This intellectual community provided Masham with the stimulation she had craved since leaving Cambridge. In letters to friends, she described the pleasure of "good conversation" at Oates, contrasting it with the intellectual desert she had previously endured. The library, expanded by Locke's collection of over four thousand volumes, became a resource for her philosophical work. Masham's son Francis later recalled how his mother and Locke would spend evenings reading together, discussing ideas, and sometimes disagreeing vigorously on philosophical points. Masham's role at Oates transcended traditional feminine domesticity. While she managed the household and cared for her family, she simultaneously participated in the intellectual life that flourished there. This dual role allowed her to develop a philosophical perspective that bridged the abstract theorizing of male philosophers with practical concerns about education, relationships, and moral development. Her position as both hostess and thinker gave her unique insights into how philosophy might address the lived experiences of women. The intellectual environment at Oates directly influenced Masham's philosophical writings. Her critique of Malebranche and Norris emerged from conversations with Locke about their ideas. Her defense of human love and social engagement reflected her experience creating community at Oates. Even her arguments about women's education drew on her observations of how knowledge was shared and discussed in her home. By transforming her domestic space into an intellectual haven, Masham demonstrated that philosophy could flourish outside traditional academic settings. Masham's care for Locke during his final illness revealed the deep connection between their personal relationship and intellectual partnership. As his health declined, she read to him, discussed ideas with him, and ensured he could continue his work as long as possible. After his death in her arms in 1704, she wrote movingly of their friendship, describing him as "the best Friend I ever had." This loss marked the end of the most intellectually stimulating period of her life, though she continued to write and engage with philosophical ideas until her own death in 1708. The intellectual community Masham created at Oates represented a radical reimagining of what a woman's domestic sphere could be. Rather than accepting the isolation that many intelligent women faced in rural settings, she transformed her home into a space where ideas could flourish and where her own voice could be heard. This achievement demonstrated her practical wisdom as well as her philosophical insight – she found a way to pursue intellectual life within the constraints society placed upon her gender.

Chapter 7: Legacy: Forgotten Pioneer of Women's Philosophy

Lady Masham's philosophical legacy faced the same erasure that threatened many women thinkers. After her death, her physical traces began to vanish – her gravestone mysteriously disappeared from Bath Abbey, and her portrait by Kneller was lost to time. Though some nineteenth-century scholars recognized her as "a person remarkable for her mind" who deserved "a niche in the history of English philosophy," her works remained out of print until 2005, and even those recent editions are no longer available. This pattern of recognition followed by forgetting reflects the precarious position of women in philosophical history. Yet Masham's ideas persisted, influencing subsequent generations of feminist thinkers. Her empiricist approach to knowledge, which emphasized the role of experience in shaping understanding, anticipated later feminist epistemologies that recognized the importance of situated knowledge. Her critique of Malebranche's theory of maternal imagination challenged early "scientific" justifications for women's intellectual inferiority, establishing a precedent for feminist responses to biologically deterministic arguments about gender differences. Perhaps most significantly, Masham articulated a vision of women's intellectual freedom that balanced autonomy with connection. Unlike philosophers who saw freedom as independence from others, she understood that human development requires relationships. Her insight that "to love not the Creatures, it is not conceiveable how we should love God" reflected her belief that engagement with others, rather than retreat from them, was essential to both intellectual and moral development. This perspective anticipated feminist ethics of care that emerged centuries later. Masham's philosophical methodology also left an important legacy. She demonstrated that philosophy could address practical concerns about education, relationships, and moral development without sacrificing intellectual rigor. By connecting abstract principles to lived experience, she expanded the scope of philosophical inquiry to include questions particularly relevant to women's lives. This approach challenged the artificial separation between theoretical and practical philosophy that often marginalized women's intellectual contributions. The rediscovery of Masham's work by feminist scholars in recent decades has restored her place in philosophical history and revealed her significance as a transitional figure between early modern and Enlightenment thought. Her defense of women's intellectual capacity, her empiricist epistemology, and her moral philosophy that balanced reason with emotion all contributed to philosophical developments that would flourish in later centuries. Though her voice was nearly lost to history, her ideas anticipated feminist philosophical perspectives that continue to challenge patriarchal assumptions about knowledge, morality, and human nature.

Summary

Lady Damaris Masham stands as a remarkable testament to the power of intellectual determination in the face of systemic barriers. Her life illuminates the paradox faced by thinking women in early modern England: possessing the capacity for philosophical thought while being denied the social recognition and institutional support to develop it fully. Yet within these constraints, she forged a distinctive philosophical voice that challenged prevailing notions about women's minds and articulated an alternative vision of knowledge grounded in both reason and relationship. Her empiricist approach to philosophy, which recognized the importance of experience and emotion alongside rational thought, anticipated feminist epistemologies that would emerge centuries later. From Masham's life and work, we can draw valuable insights about intellectual courage and adaptability. She demonstrates how philosophical thinking can emerge from unexpected places when conventional paths are blocked. Rather than accepting exclusion from formal philosophical discourse, she created alternative spaces for intellectual engagement – through correspondence, in her home at Oates, and finally through published works. Her example reminds us that philosophy is not confined to academic institutions but can flourish wherever minds engage seriously with fundamental questions about knowledge, ethics, and human nature. For anyone facing intellectual marginalization or seeking to understand how knowledge develops under conditions of inequality, Masham's story offers both inspiration and practical wisdom about claiming the right to think independently while building communities that nurture intellectual growth.

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Regan Penaluna

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