An Ordinary Man

An Ordinary Man Plot Summary

Introduction

On August 9, 1974, Americans witnessed an unprecedented moment in their nation's history. Gerald Ford, a man who had never campaigned for national office, took the oath as the 38th President of the United States, declaring "Our long national nightmare is over." The nightmare was Watergate – a constitutional crisis that had shaken the foundations of American democracy. Ford's ascension marked the first time in history that an unelected vice president succeeded an unelected president who had resigned in disgrace. The nation desperately needed healing, but the path forward was fraught with challenges. Ford's brief but consequential presidency offers a fascinating case study in crisis leadership. How does a leader restore trust in government after a devastating scandal? What difficult choices must be made when economic turmoil, foreign policy disasters, and domestic unrest converge simultaneously? Through examining Ford's handling of Nixon's pardon, the fall of Saigon, stagflation, and the Cold War, we gain insights into leadership under extreme pressure. This historical journey particularly resonates with those interested in political leadership, crisis management, and how nations recover from institutional trauma. The lessons from this transitional presidency remain remarkably relevant in today's polarized political landscape.

Chapter 1: The Accidental President: Ford's Unprecedented Ascension (1974)

In August 1974, Gerald Ford found himself in a position no American had ever experienced before. Just eight months earlier, he had been the House Minority Leader from Michigan's Fifth District when President Nixon nominated him to replace the disgraced Vice President Spiro Agnew, who had resigned amid tax evasion charges. Now, as Nixon himself resigned in disgrace over the Watergate scandal, Ford became the first and only person in American history to assume the presidency without having been elected as either president or vice president. Ford's background hardly suggested presidential destiny. Born Leslie Lynch King Jr. in 1913, he was renamed after his mother fled his abusive biological father and married Gerald Ford Sr. Growing up in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Ford developed the Midwestern values that would define his character: honesty, directness, and a commitment to public service. His twenty-five years in Congress had earned him a reputation as a pragmatic, trustworthy legislator who could work across party lines. As one colleague noted, "Jerry Ford is so straight he doesn't even know how to tell a lie." This quality would prove crucial as he assumed leadership of a nation whose trust in government had been severely damaged. The new president faced immediate challenges beyond Watergate's shadow. The economy was suffering from stagflation—a toxic combination of high inflation (12%) and rising unemployment (5.5%) that defied traditional economic remedies. The Vietnam War was reaching its tragic conclusion, with South Vietnam on the verge of collapse. America's global standing had been damaged by both Watergate and Vietnam. Ford's immediate task was to restore faith in government while addressing these pressing crises. In his first address as president, he acknowledged his unusual path to power: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your President by your ballots, so I ask you to confirm me as your President with your prayers." Ford's leadership style marked a deliberate contrast to Nixon's secretive approach. He reinstated regular press conferences, opened White House social events to journalists, and maintained an open-door policy with Congress. His unpretentious manner—toasting his own English muffins for breakfast, carrying his own luggage—humanized the presidency after the imperial style of the Nixon years. As presidential historian Richard Reeves observed, "Ford's greatest strength was that he was not Nixon. His openness, accessibility and fundamental decency were exactly what the country needed at that moment." The honeymoon period was brief, however. Just one month into his presidency, Ford made the most controversial decision of his tenure by pardoning Richard Nixon for any crimes he might have committed while in office. The public reaction was swift and negative, with Ford's approval rating plummeting from 71% to 49% overnight. Though Ford insisted the pardon was necessary to help the nation move beyond Watergate, many Americans saw it as evidence of a "corrupt bargain." This decision would haunt Ford throughout his presidency and likely cost him the 1976 election. Yet in later years, many historians and political figures—including some who had strongly criticized the pardon at the time—came to view it as a necessary step that spared the nation years of divisive legal proceedings against a former president.

Chapter 2: The Pardon Decision: Controversy and Constitutional Healing

On September 8, 1974, just a month after taking office, President Ford appeared on national television to announce his decision to grant Richard Nixon "a full, free, and absolute pardon" for any crimes he might have committed during his presidency. The timing and scope of the pardon shocked the nation. Ford's press secretary, Jerald terHorst, immediately resigned in protest. Congressional Democrats accused Ford of making a corrupt bargain with Nixon. The Washington Post, which had led the Watergate investigation, published a scathing editorial questioning Ford's judgment. Public reaction was overwhelmingly negative, with Ford's approval rating suffering the largest single-day drop ever recorded for a president. The controversy was compounded by questions about the pardon process. Why had Ford acted so quickly, before any charges had been filed against Nixon? Had there been a secret deal between Nixon and Ford prior to the resignation? These suspicions led to unprecedented congressional hearings where Ford became the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before Congress. On October 17, 1974, Ford appeared before the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, insisting there had been "no deal, period" and that he had acted solely to spare the nation the trauma of a prolonged trial of a former president. Though his testimony was generally well-received, it did little to quell public skepticism about his motives. Ford's justification for the pardon centered on national healing. "My conscience tells me clearly and certainly that I cannot prolong the bad dreams that continue to reopen a chapter that is closed," he explained in his pardon announcement. He believed the country could not afford the distraction of a prolonged Nixon trial while facing serious economic and international challenges. Ford also expressed concern about Nixon's deteriorating mental and physical health, citing reports from Nixon's doctors. The pardon, Ford insisted, was not about Nixon but about what the country needed to move forward. As he later wrote in his autobiography, "I wasn't thinking about popularity. I wasn't thinking about the next election. I was thinking about the next generation." The political consequences of the pardon were severe and lasting. The 1974 midterm elections, held just two months after the pardon, resulted in a Democratic landslide. Republicans lost 43 House seats and 3 Senate seats, giving Democrats veto-proof majorities in both chambers. This severely limited Ford's legislative options for the remainder of his presidency. More broadly, the pardon reinforced public cynicism about politics in the post-Watergate era, undermining Ford's efforts to restore trust in government. As historian Douglas Brinkley noted, "The pardon decision was a profile in courage that became a profile in political suicide." Despite these costs, Ford never expressed regret about his decision. Over time, historical assessments of the pardon began to shift. Many who had initially condemned Ford came to view the decision as necessary for national healing. In 2001, Senator Ted Kennedy, once a fierce critic of the pardon, presented Ford with the Profile in Courage Award, acknowledging that Ford had put the country's needs above his own political interests. Kennedy stated, "His courage and dedication to our country made it possible for us to begin the process of healing and put the tragedy of Watergate behind us." This reassessment suggests that sometimes the most unpopular decisions prove to be the most necessary, particularly when a nation faces constitutional crisis.

Chapter 3: Economic Turmoil: Battling Stagflation and Energy Crisis

When Gerald Ford took office in August 1974, the American economy was in dire straits. Inflation had reached an alarming 12 percent, unemployment was rising toward 7 percent, and the stock market had lost nearly 45 percent of its value since January 1973. The OPEC oil embargo had quadrupled energy prices, creating gas lines and economic uncertainty. Ford inherited what economists called "stagflation"—the previously unthinkable combination of high inflation and economic stagnation that defied traditional Keynesian solutions. As Ford's economic adviser William Seidman recalled, "We were in uncharted waters. The economic textbooks didn't have a chapter on how to deal with stagflation." Ford's initial response reflected his straightforward approach to governance. In October 1974, he launched the "Whip Inflation Now" (WIN) campaign, complete with buttons and bumper stickers, urging Americans to practice personal thrift. While the program was widely mocked as simplistic, it reflected Ford's midwestern belief in personal responsibility. More substantively, Ford convened an economic summit that brought together diverse voices from business, labor, and academia. Unlike previous administrations that relied on closed-door decision-making, Ford's approach was deliberately inclusive and transparent. The summit produced recommendations for both fiscal and monetary policies to address the complex economic challenges. By late 1974, the economic situation had deteriorated further as the country slipped into its worst recession since the Great Depression. Ford demonstrated remarkable flexibility by pivoting from his anti-inflation focus to addressing unemployment. In January 1975, he proposed a $16 billion tax cut to stimulate the economy, despite his lifelong fiscal conservatism. "I've had to sacrifice some of my conservative principles to meet the serious economic problems," Ford admitted, showing pragmatism over ideology. The Tax Reduction Act of 1975 provided rebates to taxpayers and tax credits for businesses that expanded their workforce. This stimulus, combined with monetary easing by the Federal Reserve, helped begin a gradual economic recovery. The energy crisis required equally pragmatic solutions. Ford proposed a comprehensive energy program aimed at reducing American dependence on foreign oil through conservation measures, increased domestic production, and development of alternative energy sources. He established the Energy Research and Development Administration (a precursor to the Department of Energy) and signed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975, which created the Strategic Petroleum Reserve and established the first federal fuel economy standards for automobiles. Though criticized by both environmentalists (who wanted stronger conservation measures) and oil industry advocates (who opposed price controls), Ford's middle-ground approach laid important groundwork for future energy policy. Ford's economic philosophy emphasized limiting government intervention while promoting private sector solutions. He vetoed numerous spending bills he deemed inflationary, earning the nickname "Veto President" after rejecting 66 bills during his tenure. Though Democrats overrode 12 of these vetoes, Ford's fiscal restraint helped reduce inflation from 12 percent to under 5 percent by 1976. Perhaps his most consequential economic legacy was his commitment to deregulation. Under his administration, the Securities and Exchange Commission eliminated fixed brokerage fees, and the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act reduced government control over the rail industry. These initiatives helped modernize the American economy and improve its long-term competitiveness. By the time Ford left office in January 1977, the economy had begun a modest recovery. Unemployment remained high at 7.7 percent, but inflation had moderated, and economic growth had resumed. Ford's steady, pragmatic approach had helped navigate the worst economic crisis since the 1930s, though the political benefits came too late for his reelection campaign. As economic historian Allen Matusow noted, "Ford's economic policies were more successful than his contemporaries recognized," establishing a foundation for the prosperity that would follow in later decades.

Chapter 4: Foreign Policy Challenges: From Vietnam's Fall to Helsinki

Gerald Ford's presidency coincided with a period of profound transition in American foreign policy. The fall of Saigon in April 1975 marked the traumatic end of America's involvement in Vietnam, a conflict that had divided the nation for over a decade. As North Vietnamese forces advanced on the South Vietnamese capital, Ford requested $722 million in emergency military aid from Congress, but legislators refused, reflecting the nation's war weariness. The president then oversaw Operation Frequent Wind, the dramatic evacuation of remaining Americans and thousands of South Vietnamese allies from the embassy rooftop via helicopter. The images of desperate Vietnamese clinging to departing aircraft symbolized America's first major military defeat and raised painful questions about the limits of American power. Just weeks after Vietnam's fall, Ford confronted another foreign policy test when Cambodian forces seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in the Gulf of Thailand. Determined to demonstrate American resolve after Vietnam, Ford ordered a military operation to rescue the crew. Though the mission succeeded in recovering the ship and crew, it came at the cost of 41 American servicemen killed or missing. The operation revealed both strengths and weaknesses in America's military capabilities and command structure. Nevertheless, the American public largely supported Ford's decisive action, and his approval ratings temporarily improved. As Secretary of State Henry Kissinger observed, "The president felt it essential to show that there was a limit beyond which the United States could not be pushed." Ford's most significant and enduring foreign policy achievement came with the signing of the Helsinki Accords in August 1975. This agreement with the Soviet Union and 33 other nations recognized post-World War II European boundaries while extracting Soviet commitments to human rights and freedoms. Critics, particularly conservatives like Ronald Reagan, condemned the accords as legitimizing Soviet control over Eastern Europe. Ford, however, recognized the long-term potential of embedding human rights principles in international agreements with the Soviet bloc. As time would prove, the human rights provisions of Helsinki became powerful tools for dissidents behind the Iron Curtain, contributing to the eventual peaceful end of the Cold War. Historian John Lewis Gaddis later called Helsinki "the beginning of the end of the Soviet empire." Working closely with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Ford continued the policy of détente with the Soviet Union while maintaining a firm stance on human rights and strategic issues. At the Vladivostok Summit in November 1974, Ford and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev reached a framework agreement on limiting strategic nuclear weapons. Though SALT II would not be finalized during Ford's presidency, he established parameters that guided future arms control efforts. Ford also maintained the opening to China initiated by Nixon, visiting Beijing in December 1975 and meeting with an ailing Mao Zedong. This visit helped institutionalize Sino-American relations during a period of uncertainty in Chinese leadership. In the Middle East, Ford and Kissinger pursued "shuttle diplomacy" to build on the momentum created after the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Their efforts resulted in the Sinai Interim Agreement of 1975, which further reduced tensions between Egypt and Israel. This agreement represented an important step in the peace process that would eventually lead to the Camp David Accords under President Carter. Throughout these diplomatic initiatives, Ford demonstrated a pragmatic approach to foreign affairs, prioritizing stability and American interests while working within the constraints of post-Vietnam American power. By 1976, Ford had weathered multiple foreign policy crises while maintaining America's global leadership during a period of transition. Though criticized from both right and left, his steady approach helped restore international confidence in American leadership after Watergate and Vietnam. As Ford later reflected, "We had to convince our allies and our adversaries that America had the will and the ability to address the problems of the world despite our internal difficulties."

Chapter 5: Restoring Trust: Leadership Style and Democratic Renewal

Gerald Ford assumed the presidency at one of the most fractured moments in modern American history. The country was reeling from the twin traumas of Vietnam and Watergate, which had severely undermined public trust in government institutions. Ford's primary challenge was not implementing grand policy initiatives but restoring faith in the presidency itself and healing national divisions. His famous declaration that "Our long national nightmare is over" captured both the mood of the country and his understanding of his historical mission. Ford's leadership style was perfectly suited to this moment of crisis. Unlike the imperial presidency of Nixon, Ford brought a humble, accessible approach to the office. He toasted his own English muffins for breakfast, carried his own luggage, and maintained the unpretentious demeanor of a Midwestern congressman. When he stumbled while descending the steps of Air Force One in Austria, the resulting photographs humanized him rather than diminishing his stature. His self-deprecating humor about such incidents endeared him to many Americans tired of presidential pomposity. As columnist Hugh Sidey observed, "Ford's ordinariness was exactly what the country needed after the Byzantine complexities of Richard Nixon." Transparency became a hallmark of Ford's administration. He held regular press conferences and reinstated the practice of inviting journalists to White House social events. He ended the Nixon-era enemies list and secret White House taping system. Ford also worked to restore proper constitutional balance between branches of government, telling Congress in his first address: "I do not want a honeymoon with you. I want a good marriage." This approach represented a dramatic departure from the secretive, adversarial stance of the Nixon years. Ford's appointment of Edward Levi as Attorney General further demonstrated his commitment to depoliticizing the Justice Department after its misuse during Watergate. The Ford White House also benefited from the candor and activism of First Lady Betty Ford. Unlike previous First Ladies, Betty spoke openly about controversial issues including abortion rights, premarital sex, and her own struggles with breast cancer and addiction. Though her frankness sometimes created political headaches for her husband, it reinforced the administration's commitment to honesty and helped connect the White House to changing social attitudes. As Betty herself noted, "I think I've helped a lot of women to feel better about themselves and about what they could do." Ford's leadership during the 1975-76 economic recovery demonstrated his pragmatic approach to governance. Though initially focused on fighting inflation through fiscal restraint, he showed flexibility when circumstances required, eventually supporting tax cuts and stimulus measures to combat rising unemployment. This willingness to adjust course based on changing conditions rather than rigid ideology helped the economy begin its recovery from the severe recession of 1974-75. Similarly, his approach to energy policy balanced conservation with increased production, seeking practical solutions rather than ideological purity. The bicentennial celebration of 1976 provided Ford an opportunity to help Americans reconnect with their shared heritage and values after years of division. He traveled extensively throughout the country, participating in local celebrations and emphasizing themes of national unity and resilience. The July 4th festivities that year, culminating in Operation Sail in New York Harbor and fireworks displays across the nation, represented a cathartic moment of national pride and optimism after a difficult decade. Ford used the occasion to remind Americans that "our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men... Here the people rule." Perhaps Ford's greatest leadership legacy was his demonstration that the American constitutional system could withstand even the severe test of a presidential resignation. The peaceful transfer of power from Nixon to Ford, and the subsequent functioning of government despite the unprecedented circumstances, affirmed the resilience of American institutions. As historian Richard Norton Smith observed, "Ford's greatest achievement was to be president at a time when many Americans had begun to question whether anyone could be president without being corrupted by the office."

Chapter 6: The 1976 Election: Ford's Narrow Defeat and Legacy

The 1976 presidential election presented Ford with unique challenges. No incumbent president since Chester Arthur in 1884 had faced such a serious primary challenge as Ford did from former California Governor Ronald Reagan. The charismatic conservative attacked Ford's foreign policy, particularly the Helsinki Accords and détente with the Soviet Union, while portraying the president as insufficiently conservative on domestic issues. The primary battle stretched across the country, with Ford winning crucial contests in New Hampshire, Florida, and his home state of Michigan, while Reagan dominated in the West and South. The Republican National Convention in Kansas City became a dramatic showdown, with Ford entering just slightly ahead in the delegate count. After intense lobbying of uncommitted delegates, Ford secured the nomination on the first ballot by a margin of just 117 delegates. To unite the party, Ford chose Kansas Senator Bob Dole as his running mate and adopted a platform that incorporated many of Reagan's conservative positions. However, the bruising primary fight had depleted Ford's campaign treasury and exposed deep divisions within the Republican Party that would persist for years to come. The general election campaign against Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter presented different challenges. Carter, a former Georgia governor and Washington outsider, promised to restore moral leadership and "never lie to the American people"—an implicit contrast with the Nixon-Ford era. Carter led by over 30 percentage points in early polls, but Ford gradually narrowed the gap through a relentless campaign schedule and effective performances in the first-ever televised presidential debates since Kennedy-Nixon in 1960. Ford's campaign was hampered by several missteps, most notably his declaration in the second debate that "There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe," a gaffe that reinforced concerns about his foreign policy acumen. The economy, though improving, still featured high unemployment, and Ford struggled to take credit for positive developments like declining inflation. The Nixon pardon continued to haunt him, with Carter frequently reminding voters of this controversial decision. As election day approached, the race had tightened dramatically, with final polls showing a virtual tie. The final result was the closest presidential election since 1916, with Carter winning 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240. The popular vote margin was just two percentage points (50% to 48%). Ford had nearly completed one of the greatest political comebacks in American history, coming from 30 points behind to within a whisker of victory. Political analysts noted that had the election been held a week later, Ford might well have won, as his momentum continued to build in the campaign's final days. Ford conceded graciously, telling supporters, "The people have spoken and we must all get behind the president-elect and give him our support." Ford's legacy extends far beyond his electoral defeat. His presidency represented a crucial period of healing for American democracy after the traumas of Vietnam and Watergate. By restoring integrity and transparency to the White House, Ford helped rebuild public trust in the presidency as an institution. His economic policies, while criticized at the time, laid important groundwork for future prosperity through deregulation initiatives and the beginning of victory over inflation. In foreign policy, the Helsinki Accords would eventually contribute to peaceful change in Eastern Europe, while Ford's handling of the fall of Saigon, though painful, demonstrated both compassion and realism. Perhaps most importantly, Ford's presidency demonstrated the resilience of American constitutional government. As the only unelected president in American history, Ford faced unique legitimacy challenges, yet he governed effectively during a period of multiple crises. His fundamental decency and commitment to democratic norms provided a crucial bridge between the imperial presidency of the Nixon years and the restoration of more traditional governance. As historian Douglas Brinkley observed, "Ford wasn't a great president, but he was the right president for that moment in history."

Summary

Gerald Ford's presidency, though brief, represents a crucial period of transition and healing in American history. Taking office under unprecedented circumstances—the first unelected president—Ford faced the monumental task of restoring trust in government after Watergate while simultaneously managing economic crisis, the end of the Vietnam War, and Cold War tensions. His leadership style, characterized by transparency, accessibility, and pragmatism, marked a deliberate contrast to Nixon's secretive approach. The central thread running through Ford's presidency was the tension between healing and accountability, most dramatically illustrated in his controversial pardon of Nixon. While this decision likely cost him the 1976 election, it spared the nation a prolonged legal ordeal that might have further damaged institutions. Similarly, his handling of stagflation required balancing competing economic priorities, while his foreign policy maintained America's global leadership despite post-Vietnam constraints. Ford's legacy offers important lessons for contemporary leadership. His willingness to make unpopular decisions for what he believed was the national interest—from the Nixon pardon to welcoming Vietnamese refugees against public opinion—demonstrates that political courage sometimes means accepting personal cost for collective benefit. For today's leaders, Ford's example suggests that transparency, accessibility, and basic human decency can be powerful tools for rebuilding institutional trust after periods of crisis. His pragmatic approach to governance, prioritizing practical solutions over ideological purity, provides a model for addressing complex challenges that defy partisan formulas. Perhaps most importantly, Ford's presidency reminds us that sometimes the most important leadership comes not through dramatic transformation but through steady stewardship that allows wounded institutions to heal and regain their strength.

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Richard Norton Smith

Richard Norton Smith is an American historian and author, specializing in U.S. presidents and other political figures. In the past, he worked as a freelance writer for The Washington Post, and worked with U.S. Senators Edward Brooke and Bob Dole.

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