Decision Making and Problem Solving

Decision Making and Problem Solving Plot Summary

Introduction

Decision making and problem solving are fundamental human capacities that drive our personal development and organizational success. When faced with uncertainty or challenges, our ability to analyze situations, generate viable options, and select optimal solutions becomes paramount. These cognitive processes aren't merely academic exercises—they represent the core of effective leadership and successful management in every sphere of life. The theoretical framework presented explores three interconnected mental functions: analyzing, synthesizing, and valuing. These functions work together in our thinking processes, enabling us to break down complex issues, generate creative solutions, and make sound judgments. By understanding how the mind operates at both conscious and subconscious levels, we can harness our full cognitive potential. The approach also emphasizes the importance of shared decision making, structured problem-solving strategies, and techniques for fostering creativity, ultimately providing a comprehensive system for enhancing our thinking capabilities and achieving better outcomes in an increasingly complex world.

Chapter 1: Understanding the Three Mental Functions

The human mind operates through three fundamental meta-functions that work together like interlocking pieces of a puzzle: analyzing, synthesizing, and valuing. These functions represent distinct yet complementary modes of thinking that evolved in response to our need to navigate and understand our environment. Analyzing, derived from the Greek word meaning "to loosen," involves breaking down complex wholes into simpler components. When we analyze, we trace issues to their sources and discover underlying principles. This function aligns closely with logical reasoning, including deductive thinking (moving from general principles to specific conclusions) and inductive reasoning (inferring general laws from specific observations). Our educational systems typically emphasize analytical skills, making this function relatively well-developed in most individuals. Synthesizing represents the opposite process—it involves combining separate elements to create cohesive wholes. This function engages our imagination and enables us to see patterns and relationships between seemingly unrelated components. Synthesis is inherently creative, allowing us to generate novel combinations and solutions. Nature itself works synthetically, creating holistic entities rather than mere collections of parts. When we think holistically, we recognize that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Valuing constitutes the third essential function, enabling us to establish criteria, evaluate options, and make judgments. While "criticism" often carries negative connotations, valuing encompasses both approving and disapproving assessments. This function involves both objective elements (external standards) and subjective ones (personal preferences). Our values are significantly shaped by our cultural experiences, yet they also connect to more universal principles like truth, goodness, and beauty. A particularly important aspect of these mental functions is that they operate not only at the conscious level but also within what can be termed the "Depth Mind"—the subconscious realm where processing continues even when we're engaged in other activities or sleeping. This explains why solutions sometimes emerge after we've stopped consciously working on a problem. As Roy Thompson noted in his autobiography, problems often resolve themselves when we allow our subconscious to process them, drawing on stored knowledge and experiences to generate insights. Understanding these three functions provides a foundation for improving all aspects of decision making and problem solving. By recognizing which function is most appropriate for a particular phase of thinking, we can work with the natural grain of our minds, enhancing our cognitive effectiveness across diverse challenges and situations.

Chapter 2: The Five-Step Decision Making Framework

The classic approach to decision making follows a five-step framework that provides structure to what might otherwise be a chaotic mental process. While this approach represents a natural sequence of thought, making it conscious allows us to identify missing steps or inadequately performed ones, thereby improving our overall decision-making capacity. The first step involves defining the objective—establishing clarity about what you're trying to achieve. This seemingly simple step is crucial because, without a clear destination, any path might seem appropriate. Writing down your objective often helps clarify your thinking, providing a fixed point to guide subsequent steps. The clearer your aim, the more effectively you can pursue it. Collecting relevant information constitutes the second step. This involves not only reviewing available data but also identifying critical information gaps and determining whether obtaining that missing information is feasible given time constraints. A key distinction exists between available information and relevant information—decision makers sometimes make the mistake of using whatever data is convenient rather than what's truly needed. Additionally, the information-gathering process follows a curve of diminishing returns, where initial efforts yield substantial insights while additional time produces increasingly marginal benefits. Generating feasible options is the third critical step. Many decision makers prematurely narrow their choices to just two alternatives, whereas skilled decision making requires developing multiple possibilities before filtering them down. Alfred Sloan, the renowned President of General Motors, would adjourn meetings when presented with only two options, insisting on the generation of more alternatives. The "lobster pot" model illustrates how we should move from a wide array of creative possibilities to feasible options, then to a smaller set of alternatives, and finally to a chosen course of action. The fourth step, making the decision, involves applying clear selection criteria, which can be helpfully categorized as "must," "should," and "might" requirements. Any option failing to meet the "must" criteria should be immediately discarded. Decision makers must also assess risks (calculating the worst-case scenario and determining its acceptability) and consider both manifest consequences (foreseeable outcomes) and latent consequences (unforeseen effects emerging from complex chains of events). Implementation and evaluation constitute the final step. A decision represents a "cutting off" of the preliminary thinking process as action begins. Within this phase, it's important to identify the "point of no return"—when reversing course becomes more costly than proceeding with an imperfect decision. Evaluation continues throughout implementation, allowing decision makers to learn from the experience and develop better intuition for future decisions. This framework shouldn't be viewed as a rigid sequence but rather as a spiral process where steps may be revisited as new information emerges or circumstances change. The approach balances analytical rigor with practical flexibility, providing a reliable method for navigating decisions of all magnitudes.

Chapter 3: Leading Through Shared Decision Making

The question of how extensively leaders should share decision-making processes with team members represents a fundamental leadership challenge. This issue exists within a broader context of leadership that can be understood through the "three circles" model—a framework identifying three overlapping areas of need that leaders must address. The first area involves the task need—the primary reason work groups form is to accomplish objectives too large for individuals to handle alone. When progress toward the common task is impeded, people experience mounting frustration. The second area encompasses team maintenance needs—the requirement to preserve group cohesion against external threats and internal disruptions. These needs manifest in formal and informal rules designed to promote unity and maintain relationships. The third area consists of individual needs that people bring to the group, including both physical necessities (addressed through compensation) and psychological requirements like recognition, meaningful work, and status. These three areas interact dynamically—success in one area tends to positively influence the others. For instance, task achievement builds team cohesion and satisfies individual needs, while poor team maintenance impairs task performance and reduces individual satisfaction. Effective leaders must simultaneously attend to all three areas, adopting an other-centered rather than self-centered approach. Within this framework, decision sharing becomes a critical function. When planning—a key leadership responsibility—leaders can operate at different points along a continuum of authority. At one extreme, the leader makes the plan independently and simply announces it; at the opposite end, the leader defines the parameters and allows the team to develop the plan. The appropriate approach depends on factors like available time and team competence. The more people participate in decisions affecting their work, the more motivated they become to implement those decisions. However, this must be balanced against the reduced control over outcomes that comes with increased participation. Effective leaders maintain consistency in their general approach but show flexibility in their decision-making style, operating at different points on the continuum as circumstances require. They recognize that every team member possesses valuable intellectual resources, and they actively seek ideas from all sources. As business leader Roy Thompson observed, people continually offer ideas to those who demonstrate interest, and occasionally these contributions prove extraordinarily valuable. The decision about where to decide on this control-freedom continuum becomes itself a critical leadership decision. Effective leaders develop skill in determining the appropriate level of participation based on the specific situation, time constraints, and team capability. They create an environment where team members feel empowered to contribute their thinking while maintaining sufficient direction to ensure effective outcomes.

Chapter 4: Problem Solving Strategies and Techniques

Problem solving, while closely related to decision making, involves distinct mental processes with unique characteristics. Problems essentially come in two primary forms: obstacles that block a chosen path, and systems problems involving deviations from expected performance. Understanding these differences helps in applying appropriate strategies. Unlike puzzles or games where all solution elements are already present, real-life problems typically emerge as consequences of previous decisions. For instance, deciding to climb Mount Everest might create problems like unexpected weather conditions, but these would never become issues without the initial decision to attempt the climb. Problems are therefore secondary to decisions—decisions create problems. One solution approach involves modifying the original decision or developing contingency plans, while another requires finding ways to overcome obstacles while maintaining the decision. The unified model for both decision making and problem solving can be visualized as a bridge with three pillars: defining the problem/aim, generating feasible options, and choosing the optimal solution. This model accommodates the fact that different mental functions predominate at different stages—analysis dominates problem definition, synthesis drives option generation, and valuing guides solution selection. The bridge metaphor helps teams understand where they are in the process and what skills are currently needed. Asking the right questions represents a fundamental strategy in problem solving. Questions serve as keys that unlock the mind, helping to define problems accurately, generate potential solutions, and evaluate implementation plans. Developing skill in questioning involves three competency levels: awareness of problems (developing sensitivity to actual or potential issues), understanding of process position (recognizing which phase of problem solving you're in), and questioning technique (asking appropriate questions of the right people at the right time). For systems problems—which constitute about 20 percent of leadership challenges but may represent 80 percent of technical specialists' work—a different approach is required. These problems involve deviations from normal performance in integrated systems (mechanical, organic, or process-based). The key strategy involves identifying the exact point of deviation and establishing its cause. This requires precise questioning about what happened, when it occurred, who was affected, and who witnessed it. The "W5H" formula (Who, What, Where, When, Why, How) helps pinpoint deviation points and identify potential causes. Once causes are identified, they can be systematically eliminated until the true source is discovered. Complex systems problems often involve multiple causes working in combination rather than single factors. For instance, when Plastec Ltd experienced cracking in their plastic containers, investigation revealed a combination of a supplier change and inadequate cleaning procedures. By addressing both causes, they permanently resolved the issue. The principle here is to treat causes rather than symptoms whenever possible.

Chapter 5: Generating Ideas and Creative Thinking

When conventional problem-solving approaches reach their limits, creative thinking offers a path forward. Rather than digging the same mental hole deeper, creative thinking suggests digging elsewhere—approaching problems from fresh angles and generating novel solutions. Brainstorming represents the most established creative thinking technique, having proven its value since its introduction in the 1930s. This approach operates on several key principles: embracing obvious ideas (which may not be obvious to everyone or might inspire non-obvious variations), welcoming repetition (as the same idea may trigger different responses at different times), suspending critical evaluation (to allow ideas to flow freely), encouraging unusual suggestions (as it's easier to tone down wild ideas than to make ordinary ones interesting), striving for quantity (increasing the probability of finding valuable options), and building on others' contributions (combining and improving existing suggestions). The fundamental purpose of brainstorming is to temporarily separate the synthesizing function of the mind (generating ideas) from the valuing function (judging ideas). This separation prevents premature criticism from killing nascent possibilities. As Jean-Paul Sartre observed, "Criticism often takes from the tree caterpillars and blossoms together." By establishing this mental discipline, we allow our imagination to operate without constraints. Effective brainstorming sessions follow a structured process: defining the problem clearly, providing background information, establishing a specific aim (often phrased as "In how many ways can we...?"), conducting a brief warm-up using a simple object or problem, setting a target (such as generating 70 ideas in 20 minutes), recording all suggestions without criticism, encouraging cross-fertilization of ideas, and eventually selecting the most promising options based on established criteria. Sessions typically last about 40 minutes, but participants should continue considering the problem afterward, as their Depth Minds have been programmed and may produce additional insights unexpectedly. The outcomes of brainstorming can be substantial. Pilkington Brothers Limited used a brainstorming session to solve a technical problem with glass inspection, generating 29 ideas in under five minutes and implementing three successful solutions. H.J. Heinz addressed a marketing challenge through brainstorming, producing 195 ideas with eight immediately implemented. In another example, a jigsaw puzzle manufacturer held a session that produced satisfactory but unexceptional ideas, yet a month later, one participant visited a Tutankhamun exhibition and conceived a puzzle based on the pharaoh's gold mask that broke all sales records—demonstrating how brainstorming plants seeds that may germinate later. This approach harnesses our natural creative capacities, establishing an environment where ideas can flourish through mutual stimulation, constructive feedback, and collaborative building. As Thomas Edison noted, "I start where the last man left off"—highlighting how creativity thrives when we build upon existing foundations in a supportive community of thinkers.

Chapter 6: Thinking Outside the Box

Creative problem solving requires breaking free from unconscious assumptions that constrain our thinking. The familiar phrase "thinking outside the box" literally illustrates this principle, as demonstrated by the "nine dots" problem where solvers must extend lines beyond an invisible frame to connect all dots with four straight lines. Similarly, the "six matchsticks" problem requires moving from two-dimensional to three-dimensional thinking to create four equilateral triangles. These exercises reveal how unconscious assumptions limit our options. We cannot think without making assumptions, but the problematic ones are those we're unaware of—the invisible constraints we impose on situations. This explains why social interaction benefits thinking; others help us identify our blind spots. The Hoover "free flights" promotion fiasco illustrates this danger dramatically. Company managers assumed customers would be deterred by complex restrictions surrounding a free flight offer, but underestimated public determination to navigate these barriers. The resulting flood of valid claims cost the company approximately £48 million and ultimately led to its sale at a reduced price. Lateral thinking, a concept introduced by Edward de Bono, involves abandoning step-by-step approaches in favor of sideways movement. Unlike vertical thinking, which follows logical progression, lateral thinking changes perspectives, explores what's different rather than right, makes deliberate jumps, welcomes chance intrusions, and explores unlikely directions. This approach often leads to reversing conventional methods, as when Henry Ford inverted the car manufacturing process by moving vehicles past stationary workers rather than having workers move between vehicles. Creative thinking extends beyond lateral thinking to involve what William Plomer described as "the power to connect the seemingly unconnected." This capacity allows people to perceive relationships between apparently unrelated domains and combine them into novel forms. Jethro Tull exemplified this when he applied principles from pipe organs to develop an agricultural seed drill. Creative thinkers maintain a wide "span of relevance," looking far beyond immediate contexts for solutions. They challenge widely accepted assumptions that have no basis in reality but persist through social convention. The Depth Mind plays a crucial role in creative thinking. When consciously struggling with a problem, sometimes the best approach is to step away and allow the subconscious to work. Unlike conscious thought, which operates sequentially, the Depth Mind processes information holistically and can establish connections between seemingly unrelated elements simultaneously. As Mozart described his compositional process, he didn't hear parts successively but "all together" in his imagination. The creative thinking process involves several phases: preparation (collecting information and analyzing the problem), incubation (allowing the Depth Mind to separate and recombine elements), insight (when new ideas emerge into consciousness), and validation (testing ideas for practical value). While this framework provides useful structure, the actual process is more fluid, with phases intermingling and recurring. When progress stalls, the blockage typically stems from factors like insufficient information, lack of conviction or motivation, absence of a starting point, too much proximity to the problem, or inadequate perseverance. By understanding these principles and developing techniques to overcome mental barriers, problem solvers can access greater creative resources, particularly valuable in times of rapid change when conventional approaches prove insufficient.

Chapter 7: Developing Your Mental Skills

The journey toward becoming an effective thinker is fundamentally one of self-development. While formal education develops certain thinking capacities, the ability to make decisions and solve problems effectively requires ongoing personal cultivation of mental skills tailored to your specific field and aspirations. A productive first step involves creating a clear mental image of the kind of thinker you aspire to become. Rather than constructing an abstract list of qualities, identify people whose thinking skills you admire—individuals you've known personally or studied in depth—and specify the particular mental capabilities that impressed you. This creates a composite picture of excellence that can serve as a personal magnet, drawing you toward development. While no one achieves perfection in all thinking domains (like athletes who specialize in certain events), this exercise helps you envision the specific cognitive strengths most relevant to your field and future position. Another crucial consideration involves ensuring alignment between your natural thinking profile and your chosen field. Dimitri Comino, founder of Dexion plc, observed that it's easier to select motivated people than to motivate unmotivated ones. Similarly, it's more effective to choose fields that match your natural thinking strengths than to struggle developing skills that don't align with your disposition. This selection should consider your interests (what naturally engages your attention), aptitudes (your innate capacities to acquire specific skills), and temperament (your comfort with different types of cognitive challenges). Once positioned in a suitable field, designing a personal learning strategy becomes essential. Effective learning occurs when principles/theory interact with practice/experience, with sparks jumping between these poles. While everyone accumulates experience with decision making and problem solving, deliberate development accelerates this process. Practical approaches include studying theoretical frameworks, inventorying your current thinking skills, interviewing accomplished thinkers in your field, analyzing both successful and unsuccessful decisions, reading relevant literature, maintaining a notebook of principles and examples, attending courses, and actively seeking criticism. A simple technique for producing ideas involves five steps: gathering raw materials (both problem-specific information and general knowledge), mentally working with these materials, allowing incubation time for subconscious processing, recognizing the moment of insight when it emerges, and finally developing the idea into practical form. Like cooking, this process requires patience—constantly prodding thoughts causes them to disintegrate rather than develop naturally. The ultimate goal isn't merely to acquire knowledge but to develop practical wisdom—a combination of intelligence, experience, and sound judgment. As the Papua New Guinea proverb states, "Knowledge is only a rumor until it is in the muscle." Thinking should be approached not as laborious work but as an enjoyable activity that naturally improves with practice. By finding your proper vocational niche, learning from diverse sources, and consistently applying these principles, you can systematically enhance your decision-making and problem-solving capabilities, transforming intellectual understanding into embodied skill.

Summary

The art of decision making and problem solving centers on understanding and integrating three fundamental mental functions—analyzing, synthesizing, and valuing—within structured frameworks that harness both conscious and subconscious cognitive processes. This integrated approach enables individuals to define objectives clearly, generate creative options, evaluate alternatives systematically, and implement solutions effectively. The significance of these thinking frameworks extends far beyond individual problem resolution or decision making. They provide a foundation for enhanced leadership through shared decision processes, foster organizational innovation through structured creativity, and build personal resilience through improved cognitive flexibility. By developing these mental skills, individuals not only address immediate challenges more effectively but also cultivate lasting capabilities that transform their approach to complexity in all aspects of life. The ultimate achievement isn't merely solving today's problems but developing the practical wisdom to navigate tomorrow's uncertainties with confidence and insight.

About Author

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John Adair

John Eric Adair is a British academic who is a leadership theorist and author of more than forty books (translated into eighteen languages) on business, military and other leadership.

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