Drunk

Drunk Plot Summary

Introduction

The evening had barely begun when Michael uncorked a bottle of red wine at his dinner gathering. As glasses clinked and conversation flowed, something remarkable happened: his usually reserved colleague Sarah began sharing innovative ideas about their work project, while two strangers discovered shared interests and made plans to meet again. By the end of the night, this group of relative strangers had formed connections that would have taken weeks to develop in formal settings. This scene, playing out in countless variations across the world every evening, represents one of humanity's oldest rituals - the shared consumption of alcohol. Throughout human history, from ancient Sumerian beer halls to modern cocktail lounges, people have deliberately consumed substances that impair their cognitive functions. This seems paradoxical from an evolutionary perspective. Why would humans consistently seek out neurotoxins that slow reflexes, impair judgment, and can lead to serious health problems? The standard explanation suggests we're victims of an evolutionary mismatch - our ancestors occasionally encountered naturally fermented fruit, and we've simply hijacked this pleasure pathway. But this theory falls short when we consider how universal and persistent drinking behavior has been across cultures and millennia. Archaeological evidence reveals that humans were fermenting beverages as far back as 10,000 BCE, suggesting alcohol may have played a crucial role in our species' social development - one that continues to shape human creativity and connection today.

Chapter 1: The Evolutionary Paradox: Why We Seek Intoxication

At an archaeological site called Göbekli Tepe in modern-day Turkey, researchers discovered something remarkable: massive stone monuments built by hunter-gatherers nearly 12,000 years ago, before the development of agriculture. Alongside these impressive structures were large stone vessels capable of holding substantial quantities of primitive beer. This discovery challenges conventional wisdom about human development - rather than people settling down to farm and then discovering alcohol as a byproduct, the evidence suggests they may have developed agriculture specifically to produce alcohol for communal gatherings. This pattern appears repeatedly in archaeological records across the world. In China's Yellow River Valley, elaborate drinking vessels dominate early findings. In the Americas, evidence suggests corn was first domesticated primarily for making chicha (corn beer) rather than food. The conventional narrative that humans invented agriculture and then accidentally discovered fermentation appears backward - we may have developed agriculture specifically to produce alcohol for communal consumption. From an evolutionary perspective, this presents a puzzle. Why would humans consistently seek out substances that impair cognitive function, slow reflexes, and can lead to addiction? The standard explanation suggests we're victims of an evolutionary mismatch - our ancestors occasionally encountered naturally fermented fruit, and we've simply hijacked this pleasure pathway with concentrated modern alcohol. But this theory falls short when we consider how universal and persistent drinking behavior has been across cultures and millennia. The persistence of alcohol consumption despite its obvious costs suggests it must provide significant benefits. Throughout history, alcohol has served crucial social functions: reducing social anxiety between strangers, facilitating trust through shared vulnerability, and enabling larger group bonding than would otherwise be possible. As archaeologist Michael Dietler notes, alcohol-fueled gatherings served as "the biotechnology of group formation" - a crucial tool that allowed early humans to overcome their inherent suspicion of strangers. Perhaps most significantly, alcohol helped transform small bands of related individuals into larger cooperative communities capable of building civilization. By temporarily suppressing our prefrontal cortex - the brain region responsible for self-control and social inhibition - alcohol created states where humans could form bonds with non-kin, share resources, and collaborate on complex projects. This chemical technology for enhancing social connection may have been just as important to human development as tools for hunting or techniques for growing food. The evolutionary paradox of intoxication reveals something profound about human nature: we are creatures caught between individual self-interest and the need for social connection. Alcohol provided a chemical solution to this dilemma, helping bridge the gap between our primate inheritance and our uniquely human capacity for large-scale cooperation.

Chapter 2: Creativity Unleashed: Alcohol and the Prefrontal Cortex

Ernest Hemingway famously claimed, "Write drunk, edit sober," capturing an intuition many creative people have shared throughout history. While working on his masterpiece "The Sun Also Rises," Hemingway developed a ritual of writing intensely during mornings while sober, then relaxing with drinks in the afternoon, allowing new ideas and connections to emerge. The following morning, he would integrate these insights into his disciplined writing process. This pattern - alternating between sober focus and intoxicated ideation - helped produce one of the most influential novels of the 20th century. This creative strategy isn't unique to Hemingway. Throughout history, writers, artists, musicians, and thinkers have recognized alcohol's potential to enhance certain types of creativity. Ancient Chinese poets wrote entire collections titled "Written While Drunk," while Greek writers claimed that "wine is the horse of Parnassus that carries a bard to the skies." Modern laboratory research confirms this connection isn't merely cultural mythology - it reflects genuine cognitive changes that occur when alcohol temporarily alters brain function. The key to understanding alcohol's effect on creativity lies in its impact on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) - the brain region responsible for executive function, impulse control, and focused attention. When we consume alcohol, it selectively suppresses PFC activity, creating a state neuroscientists call "hypofrontality." This temporary dampening of our brain's control center has profound effects on how we think and create. In a landmark study titled "Uncorking the Muse," researchers found that participants with blood alcohol levels around 0.075 percent (about two drinks for most people) performed significantly better on creative problem-solving tasks than sober controls. They solved more problems, reached solutions more quickly, and reported more moments of sudden insight. However, they performed worse on tasks requiring focused attention and analytical reasoning. This pattern - enhanced divergent thinking alongside impaired convergent thinking - explains why alcohol can simultaneously improve certain creative functions while impairing others. What makes this particularly interesting is the parallel between intoxication and childhood cognition. Children excel at certain creative tasks precisely because their prefrontal cortex is still developing. Their minds wander more freely between possibilities, make unexpected connections, and remain unconstrained by conventional thinking. As we mature, our powerful PFC helps us focus and analyze, but can also trap us in rigid thought patterns. Alcohol essentially returns adults to a more childlike cognitive state - one where ideas flow more freely and self-criticism temporarily subsides. This cognitive flexibility has been essential to human innovation throughout history. We need Apollo's order and discipline to build civilizations, but we also need Dionysus's chaos and creativity to innovate and connect with others. Alcohol provides a chemical key that temporarily unlocks the door between these two essential aspects of human cognition, allowing us to access creative potential that might otherwise remain hidden behind the walls of adult self-control.

Chapter 3: Building Trust: How Shared Vulnerability Creates Community

In a remote village in the Georgian Caucasus Mountains, an elaborate feast called a supra unfolds. The tamada (toastmaster) raises his glass, offering the first of many toasts that will structure the evening. As wine flows, strangers become friends, conflicts resolve, and business deals solidify. Participants drink from the same vessels, maintaining eye contact during toasts, and gradually reveal more personal stories as the evening progresses. By the end, people who began as strangers have formed bonds that will last for years. This Georgian tradition exemplifies a pattern seen across cultures: alcohol serves as a powerful technology for building trust and community. The puzzle of human cooperation has long fascinated evolutionary biologists. Unlike most animals, humans routinely cooperate with non-relatives - a behavior that shouldn't theoretically evolve since it benefits others at potential cost to ourselves. Yet our species' success depends entirely on this unusual capacity for cooperation with strangers. Alcohol helps solve this evolutionary puzzle through what anthropologists call "costly signaling." By voluntarily impairing our cognitive functions in the presence of others, we signal our trustworthiness. When someone drinks with you, they're essentially saying: "I trust you enough to make myself vulnerable around you." This trust-building function appears across cultures and throughout history. In ancient China, elaborate wine ceremonies served as diplomatic tools, where refusing to drink could be interpreted as refusing an alliance. Viking warriors sealed oaths by drinking from the same horn. Even today, business deals in many parts of the world aren't considered final until the parties have shared drinks together. As one executive observed about negotiations in East Asia: "The contract is just the beginning. The real deal happens over drinks." Alcohol also facilitates honest communication by temporarily impairing our ability to maintain complex deceptions. Humans are remarkably skilled at deception, both of others and ourselves. Our prefrontal cortex allows us to maintain facades and hidden agendas. Alcohol temporarily disrupts this ability, making it harder to lie convincingly. This "chemical truth serum" effect explains why the Romans had the saying "in vino veritas" (in wine, truth) and why diplomatic corps worldwide still rely on alcohol-fueled gatherings to build genuine relationships. Beyond trust and honesty, alcohol creates community through synchronized experience. When a group drinks together, they undergo similar neurochemical changes at the same time, creating a form of biochemical solidarity. The endorphin release triggered by alcohol consumption creates feelings of warmth and connection with those around us. This biochemical bonding, combined with alcohol's social lubrication effects, helps explain why virtually every human society has developed some form of communal drinking ritual. In our increasingly digital, isolated world, these chemical technologies for building trust may be more important than ever. While we must acknowledge alcohol's serious risks, we should also recognize that its persistence in human societies reflects genuine social benefits that have not been rendered obsolete by modern life. The shared vulnerability created by communal drinking continues to serve as one of humanity's most effective tools for transforming strangers into friends and building the trust that underpins all human communities.

Chapter 4: From Ancient Feasts to Modern Happy Hours

When Google opened its campus in Mountain View, California, they included something that raised eyebrows among more traditional corporations: dedicated spaces where engineers could retreat with a beer when facing creative blocks. These areas weren't designed for solitary drinking, but for teams to gather away from their screens, share a drink, and allow new solutions to emerge through relaxed conversation. This practice reflects an ancient understanding that moderate intoxication can catalyze both individual creativity and group innovation - a tradition stretching back to the earliest human settlements. Archaeological evidence reveals that some of humanity's first monumental architecture was designed specifically for communal drinking. At Göbekli Tepe, stone benches line the walls of structures that contained large vats for brewing primitive beer. In ancient Mesopotamia, cylinder seals depict people drinking beer through straws from communal vessels during important social gatherings. The Greek symposium - literally meaning "drinking together" - served as the primary intellectual and social institution of classical Athens, where philosophers, poets, and politicians gathered to share wine and ideas. These ancient drinking traditions weren't just recreational - they served crucial social functions that helped build and maintain complex societies. In medieval Europe, guilds held regular feast days where masters, journeymen, and apprentices drank together, temporarily suspending the rigid hierarchies that normally governed their relationships. These alcohol-fueled gatherings helped maintain social cohesion despite significant inequality. Similarly, in traditional Japanese business culture, after-work drinking sessions (nomikai) allow subordinates to speak frankly to superiors in ways that would be impossible during sober work hours. The modern happy hour continues this ancient tradition of using alcohol to temporarily dissolve social barriers. Research confirms that groups drinking alcohol together display more genuine "Duchenne" smiles, engage in more evenly distributed conversation, and report stronger feelings of group bonding than those drinking non-alcoholic beverages. This explains why so many breakthrough ideas throughout history emerged from wine-soaked conversations in Paris salons or beer-fueled discussions in Vienna coffeehouses. Beyond the workplace, alcohol continues to structure social life across cultures. In Spain, the evening paseo culminates in shared drinks at outdoor cafés. In Britain, the pub serves as a "third place" between home and work where community connections form. In Japan, nomikai (drinking parties) remain essential for integrating new employees into company culture. Even in cultures where alcohol is technically forbidden, like traditional Islamic societies, similar social functions are often served by tea houses or coffee shops - suggesting the need for spaces of relaxed social connection transcends particular substances. The persistence of these drinking traditions across time and cultures reveals something fundamental about human social needs. Despite all our technological advances, we remain social primates who crave authentic connection with others. The journey from ancient feasts to modern happy hours isn't just about the history of a particular substance - it's about our enduring need for spaces where hierarchies temporarily dissolve, creativity flows freely, and genuine human connection can flourish beyond the constraints of everyday social roles.

Chapter 5: The Shadow Side: Addiction, Violence and Social Harm

David had always been the life of the party. His friends admired his ability to drink anyone under the table while remaining charming and functional. But over time, what had started as weekend fun expanded to weeknight drinks, then lunchtime beers, and finally morning eye-openers. His marriage collapsed, his work suffered, and his health deteriorated. When his doctor diagnosed him with advanced liver disease at age 42, David finally confronted the truth: alcohol, once his social lubricant, had become his master. His story represents the dark side of our evolutionary relationship with alcohol - what happens when an adaptive tool becomes a destructive force. The shadow side of alcohol has been recognized throughout human history. The ancient Greeks portrayed Dionysus as both the bringer of joy and the harbinger of madness. Chinese texts simultaneously celebrated wine as essential to community while warning that it could destroy kingdoms. This ambivalence reflects alcohol's genuine dangers, which science has only clarified: it ranks among the most harmful substances humans consume, contributing to approximately 3 million deaths annually worldwide. What makes alcohol particularly dangerous is the mismatch between our evolutionary history with fermented beverages and modern distilled spirits. For most of human history, alcohol was consumed as beer or wine with 2-4% alcohol content, in communal settings governed by social norms. Distilled spirits, which can reach 40% alcohol or higher, only became widespread in the 16th-18th centuries. This concentrated form delivers a neurological impact our brains never evolved to handle. Simultaneously, modern life has made solitary drinking both possible and common, removing the social guardrails that traditionally moderated consumption. Beyond addiction, alcohol contributes to numerous other social harms. It's implicated in approximately 40% of violent crimes, 40% of fatal car accidents, and countless instances of poor decision-making. The disinhibition that makes alcohol valuable for creativity and social bonding can also unleash aggression, particularly in individuals already prone to hostile behavior. Studies show that alcohol significantly increases the risk of sexual assault, with a majority of such cases involving alcohol consumption by either the perpetrator, victim, or both. Cultural norms play a crucial role in determining how these dangers manifest. In "Southern" drinking cultures like Italy, alcohol is integrated into family meals from an early age, consumed primarily with food, and public drunkenness is stigmatized. In "Northern" cultures like Russia or Scandinavia, drinking occurs separately from meals, often involves spirits, and binge drinking is more common. These cultural differences help explain why Italy has among Europe's lowest alcoholism rates despite high per-capita consumption, while Russia faces much higher rates of alcohol-related harm. The lesson isn't that we should abandon alcohol, but that we need to recognize both its benefits and dangers. Throughout human history, cultures have developed norms and practices to harness alcohol's positive social functions while minimizing its harms. In our modern world of distilled spirits and isolated drinking, we need to be particularly mindful of maintaining these protective cultural practices - teaching moderate consumption patterns, preserving communal drinking contexts, and recognizing when the dark side of Dionysus threatens to overwhelm its gifts. By acknowledging alcohol's shadow side, we can work toward a healthier relationship with this powerful but potentially dangerous social technology.

Chapter 6: Finding Balance: Mindful Drinking in the Modern World

On a warm summer evening in Barcelona, families gather at outdoor cafés, sharing meals that stretch for hours. Children run between tables while their parents sip wine and engage in animated conversation. Across the Atlantic, in a suburban American home, a woman pours herself a large glass of vodka and drinks alone in front of the television after a stressful day at work. These contrasting scenes illustrate two fundamentally different relationships with alcohol - one integrated into social life and regulated by cultural norms, the other isolated and potentially problematic. The difference helps explain why Spain, despite high per-capita alcohol consumption, has relatively low rates of alcoholism compared to countries like Russia or the United States. This contrast points toward potential solutions for healthier relationships with alcohol in modern society. "Southern" drinking cultures - found in Mediterranean countries like Spain, Italy, and Greece - provide a model where alcohol is primarily consumed with meals, introduced to young people gradually in family settings, and rarely consumed to the point of intoxication. These cultures have developed effective guardrails against alcohol's potential harms while preserving its social benefits. By contrast, "Northern" drinking cultures - characterized by binge drinking, separation from meals, and consumption primarily for intoxication - amplify alcohol's risks while diminishing its benefits. Mindful drinking represents another promising approach for modern consumers. Rather than viewing alcohol consumption as either completely good or bad, mindful drinking encourages awareness of why, when, and how much we drink. This might mean savoring a single glass of wine with dinner rather than drinking mindlessly while watching television, or choosing to abstain in situations where drinking doesn't serve a positive purpose. Organizations promoting "mindful drinking" offer an alternative to both traditional drinking culture and complete abstinence, recognizing that many people want to maintain a healthier relationship with alcohol without eliminating it entirely. The growing popularity of alcohol-free social spaces also offers a promising development. "Sober bars" provide the atmosphere and social connection of traditional bars without the alcohol, allowing people to enjoy the social benefits of these "third places" without the neurotoxin. Similarly, the rise of sophisticated non-alcoholic beverages - from complex "mocktails" to alcohol-free spirits and beers - gives non-drinkers more options for participating in social rituals previously centered around alcohol. These innovations help level the playing field between drinkers and non-drinkers in professional and social settings. Technology may also offer new ways to achieve some of alcohol's benefits with fewer risks. Preliminary research on certain substances suggests they might enhance creativity and social connection with fewer physiological harms than alcohol. Various forms of meditation and mindfulness practices can temporarily reduce prefrontal cortex activity, potentially offering a "natural hypofrontality" that mimics some of alcohol's creative benefits. While these alternatives remain experimental, they reflect a growing interest in finding safer ways to achieve the states of mind that alcohol has traditionally provided. Perhaps most importantly, understanding alcohol's evolutionary functions can help us make more informed choices about its role in our lives. Rather than viewing drinking as either a harmless pleasure or a dangerous vice, we can recognize it as a powerful technology with both benefits and risks. Like fire, alcohol has warmed and illuminated human social life for millennia, but it can also burn us when misused. By appreciating both its light and shadow sides, we can work toward a relationship with alcohol that enhances rather than diminishes human flourishing in our complex modern world.

Summary

Throughout human history, alcohol has been far more than just a recreational substance or cultural artifact - it has been a fundamental technology that helped make civilization possible. By temporarily dampening our prefrontal cortex function, alcohol creates states of cognitive disinhibition that enhance creativity, build trust, facilitate honest communication, and enable the large-scale cooperation that distinguishes human societies. From the ancient stone circles of Göbekli Tepe to modern corporate innovation, alcohol has consistently served as a catalyst for human connection and creativity. The archaeological and historical evidence suggests that our relationship with intoxication isn't an evolutionary mistake or cultural accident, but rather a sophisticated adaptation that helped our species overcome fundamental social challenges. Yet this powerful technology comes with significant risks that have been amplified by modern innovations like distillation and solitary drinking. Understanding alcohol's evolutionary functions doesn't mean ignoring its potential for harm, but rather developing more nuanced approaches to balancing its benefits and risks. By learning from cultures with healthier drinking patterns, creating more inclusive social spaces, practicing mindful consumption, and exploring alternative methods for achieving creative and social benefits, we can preserve what's valuable about our relationship with alcohol while reducing its costs. In doing so, we honor both our evolutionary heritage and our responsibility to create healthier futures. After all, the same substance that has fueled human creativity, connection, and civilization for thousands of years deserves neither uncritical celebration nor blanket condemnation, but rather the thoughtful appreciation we would give to any powerful technology that has shaped our species' journey.

About Author

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Edward Slingerland

I'm Distinguished University Scholar and Professor of Philosophy at the University of British Columbia. I work in a lot of academic areas, including early Chinese thought, comparative religion, cognitive science of religion, virtue ethics, cognitive linguistics and science-humanities integration. My first trade book, Trying Not to Try, was published by Crown/Random House in March 2014. My new book, Drunk: How We Sipped, Danced and Stumbled Our Way to Civilization, is forthcoming from Little, Brown Spark on June 1, 2021. I have also published many academic books, translations, articles and book chapters. For information about my books, articles, teaching and research, please see my personal website: edwardslingerland.com

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