Humanly Possible

Humanly Possible Plot Summary

Introduction

Humanism represents one of the most enduring and influential philosophical traditions in human history, offering a framework for understanding our place in the world without relying on supernatural explanations. At its core, humanism places human experience, reason, and well-being at the center of moral and intellectual inquiry. Rather than looking to divine revelation or religious authority for guidance, humanists throughout history have emphasized our capacity to discover meaning, develop ethical principles, and create flourishing societies through rational investigation and compassionate action. This human-centered approach has consistently challenged dogmatism and authoritarianism while promoting values of intellectual freedom, dignity, and social progress. The humanist tradition spans cultures and epochs, evolving from ancient philosophical schools through Renaissance revival of classical learning to Enlightenment challenges to religious authority and contemporary scientific understanding. What unites these diverse expressions is a fundamental commitment to human dignity and the belief that we can improve our condition through reason, evidence, and ethical action. By examining this intellectual heritage, we gain not just historical knowledge but practical wisdom about how to address contemporary challenges from technological disruption to environmental sustainability, from religious extremism to democratic backsliding. The humanist perspective offers valuable resources for creating meaning and pursuing flourishing in our complex, pluralistic world.

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Humanist Thought: From Renaissance to Modern Era

Humanism represents one of the most enduring intellectual traditions in Western civilization, with roots stretching back to ancient Greece and Rome. While humanistic ideas appeared in various forms throughout history, the Renaissance period marked a pivotal moment when humanism emerged as a distinct intellectual movement. Fourteenth-century Italian scholars like Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio began recovering and studying classical texts, not merely out of antiquarian interest but because they believed these works contained wisdom relevant to contemporary life. This recovery effort represented a significant shift from medieval scholasticism, which had subordinated classical learning to theological concerns. Renaissance humanism initially centered on educational reform through the studia humanitatis—grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. This curriculum aimed to develop not just knowledge but eloquence, judgment, and moral character necessary for civic life. Unlike medieval education focused primarily on training clergy, humanist education sought to prepare students for active participation in society. This practical orientation reflected the humanist belief that learning should serve human needs rather than abstract theological concerns. Through their educational reforms, Renaissance humanists established enduring ideals about the value of liberal education for developing human potential. A defining feature of Renaissance humanism was its emphasis on human dignity and capability. Pico della Mirandola's famous "Oration on the Dignity of Man" captured this sentiment by portraying humans as uniquely free to determine their own nature—neither celestial nor earthly, but capable of becoming either through their choices. This view challenged medieval conceptions that emphasized human sinfulness and unworthiness before God. Instead, humanists celebrated human achievements in art, science, literature, and civic life. Importantly, this affirmation of human dignity did not necessarily entail rejection of religious belief; many Renaissance humanists remained devoutly Christian while shifting focus toward human agency and the value of this life. The Enlightenment period witnessed humanism evolve from a primarily literary and educational movement into a more comprehensive philosophical outlook that directly challenged religious authority. Thinkers like Voltaire, Denis Diderot, and David Hume developed increasingly bold critiques of traditional religious institutions and dogmas. They advocated for religious tolerance, separation of church and state, and the primacy of reason in human affairs. The Enlightenment humanists' emphasis on natural rights, rational consent, and human equality directly influenced democratic revolutions in America, France, and beyond, establishing political principles that continue to shape modern governance. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientific discoveries profoundly transformed humanist thought. Darwin's theory of evolution challenged traditional accounts of human origins and special status, requiring humanists to develop naturalistic understandings of human nature and morality. Figures like T.H. Huxley and John Dewey integrated scientific knowledge with humanistic values, maintaining that humans could find meaning and develop ethical principles without supernatural foundations. This scientific turn did not diminish humanist commitment to human dignity but grounded it in natural rather than supernatural conceptions of human nature. Contemporary humanism continues to evolve while maintaining core commitments to human dignity, rational inquiry, and ethical responsibility. Modern humanist organizations advocate for secular ethics, scientific literacy, and human rights across diverse societies. In an age of religious resurgence and political polarization, humanist principles offer a middle path between dogmatic certainty and moral relativism—affirming shared values while remaining open to revision and dialogue. This balanced approach addresses contemporary challenges from bioethical dilemmas to environmental crises, which require both ethical commitment and intellectual flexibility.

Chapter 2: Reason and Evidence: The Humanist Approach to Knowledge

The humanist approach to knowledge represents a fundamental commitment to evidence, rational inquiry, and critical thinking rather than appeals to authority or revelation. This epistemological stance emerged gradually through history, from ancient Greek philosophers questioning mythological explanations to Renaissance scholars developing philological methods for authenticating texts to Enlightenment thinkers championing empirical investigation. What unites these diverse expressions is the conviction that human reason, while imperfect, remains our most reliable tool for understanding both the natural world and human affairs. Central to the humanist epistemology is the principle that knowledge claims should be evaluated based on evidence rather than the status of those making the claims. This democratic approach to knowledge challenges traditional hierarchies that restricted learning to privileged elites or religious authorities. When Lorenzo Valla used linguistic evidence to prove that the "Donation of Constantine"—a document purportedly giving the pope authority over Western Europe—was a medieval forgery, he demonstrated how rational inquiry could challenge even the most entrenched claims to authority. This critical approach extends beyond textual studies to encompass all forms of knowledge, encouraging skepticism toward unexamined traditions and dogmatic assertions. Humanists recognize that human reasoning has limitations and biases that must be acknowledged and mitigated. Our cognitive processes evolved primarily for survival rather than abstract truth-seeking, making us vulnerable to various logical fallacies and psychological biases. Scientific methods developed within the humanist tradition address these limitations through practices like controlled experimentation, peer review, and statistical analysis. These methodological safeguards help overcome individual biases and produce more reliable knowledge. Rather than claiming perfect objectivity, humanists advocate intellectual humility—recognizing the provisional nature of knowledge while still maintaining that rational inquiry can progressively approach truth. The humanist commitment to evidence does not entail crude scientism or reductionism. While valuing scientific methods, humanists recognize that different domains of inquiry may require different approaches. Historical understanding, ethical reasoning, and aesthetic appreciation involve forms of knowledge not reducible to scientific explanation. Renaissance humanists valued poetry and rhetoric alongside natural philosophy, recognizing that different aspects of human experience call for different modes of understanding. This epistemological pluralism distinguishes humanism from narrower forms of rationalism or empiricism. Education plays a crucial role in the humanist approach to knowledge. From Renaissance academies to modern universities, humanists have developed educational institutions and practices designed to cultivate critical thinking, intellectual curiosity, and methodological rigor. These educational ideals reflect the humanist belief that knowledge should be accessible to all capable of rational inquiry rather than restricted by dogma or tradition. By promoting scientific literacy, critical media consumption, and lifelong learning, contemporary humanists continue this educational mission in response to modern challenges like misinformation and technological complexity. The humanist epistemology has profound ethical and political implications. If knowledge depends on evidence and reasoning rather than authority, then intellectual freedom becomes essential for human flourishing. Throughout history, humanists have defended freedom of thought, expression, and inquiry against various forms of censorship and dogmatism. From Galileo's defense of heliocentrism to modern campaigns for academic freedom, the humanist tradition consistently opposes restrictions on the pursuit of knowledge. This commitment reflects the understanding that intellectual liberty serves not just individual development but social progress through the discovery and dissemination of knowledge that can improve human welfare.

Chapter 3: Human Dignity and Autonomy: Core Humanist Values

Human dignity stands as the cornerstone of humanist ethics and political thought. Unlike medieval perspectives that emphasized human sinfulness and unworthiness before God, humanists assert the inherent value and potential of human beings. This recognition of dignity is not contingent on social status, religious belief, or political affiliation but is understood as an intrinsic quality of humanity itself. Pico della Mirandola's famous "Oration on the Dignity of Man" captured this sentiment by portraying humans as uniquely free to determine their own nature through their choices and actions. This conception of dignity grounds humanist commitments to human rights, social justice, and individual freedom. Autonomy—the capacity for self-governance according to rational principles—represents a central humanist value closely connected to dignity. Humanists maintain that humans possess the ability to determine their own values and direct their lives accordingly, rather than merely following external authorities or impulses. This conception of autonomy differs significantly from mere license or absence of constraint. It entails responsible self-determination guided by reason and concern for others. Kant's notion of autonomy exemplifies this humanist ideal of freedom as disciplined self-direction rather than impulsive self-indulgence. Contemporary humanists continue to defend personal autonomy in matters ranging from reproductive choices to end-of-life decisions. The humanist commitment to dignity and autonomy has profound implications for political organization. If humans possess inherent dignity and the capacity for self-governance, then political systems should respect these qualities rather than suppress them. This perspective has led humanists throughout history to challenge authoritarian regimes and advocate for democratic governance based on consent of the governed. From Locke's arguments for limited government to contemporary human rights advocacy, humanists have insisted that legitimate political authority must respect human dignity and autonomy. This political dimension distinguishes humanism from purely contemplative philosophical traditions. Throughout history, humanists have worked to extend dignity and autonomy to previously marginalized groups. From early feminist humanists like Mary Wollstonecraft to abolitionists like Frederick Douglass to contemporary advocates for LGBTQ+ rights, the humanist tradition has consistently expanded its circle of moral concern. This progressive expansion reflects the universalist impulse within humanism—the recognition that all humans share fundamental capacities and deserve equal respect regardless of contingent differences in identity or circumstance. Contemporary humanists continue this work by addressing persistent forms of discrimination and oppression that undermine human dignity. The humanist conception of dignity has been challenged from various perspectives. Religious critics argue that without divine foundations, human dignity lacks secure grounding. Postmodern theorists question whether "humanity" itself is a stable category, suggesting instead that our understanding of what it means to be human is historically contingent and shaped by power relationships. Evolutionary psychology and neuroscience raise questions about human rationality and autonomy by revealing unconscious influences on our decision-making. Humanists respond to these challenges by developing more nuanced conceptions of dignity that acknowledge human limitations while maintaining that our capacity for reason and moral concern still warrants special respect. Environmental crises have prompted humanists to reconsider the relationship between human dignity and the natural world. Traditional humanist thought sometimes positioned humans as separate from and superior to nature, potentially justifying environmental exploitation. Contemporary humanists increasingly recognize that human flourishing depends on ecological sustainability and that other species may possess forms of dignity deserving moral consideration. This ecological turn represents an evolution in humanist thinking rather than a rejection of its core values. By extending concern beyond humans to the broader web of life that sustains us, ecological humanism maintains the tradition's focus on flourishing while acknowledging our interdependence with natural systems.

Chapter 4: Ethics Without Religion: The Humanist Moral Framework

Humanist ethics rejects the notion that morality requires divine commandment or supernatural sanction. Instead, it grounds moral principles in human experience, reason, and natural empathy. This approach does not deny the historical importance of religious moral teachings but maintains that ethical principles can be discovered and justified through rational reflection on human nature and social relationships. From Aristotle's virtue ethics to Hume's moral sentimentalism to contemporary rights-based theories, humanists have developed diverse frameworks for understanding moral obligations without appealing to supernatural authority. At the heart of humanist ethics lies the recognition of our shared humanity and capacity for suffering. From this recognition emerges the principle of reciprocity—treating others as we would wish to be treated—which appears across diverse cultures and philosophical traditions. Humanists from Hume to Singer have emphasized how natural empathy provides the emotional foundation for moral concern, while reason helps us apply this concern consistently and impartially. This combination of empathy and rationality allows humanists to develop ethical principles without appealing to supernatural authority. The universality of basic moral intuitions across cultures suggests they reflect common human needs and capacities rather than culturally specific religious teachings. Humanist ethics places particular emphasis on human flourishing or well-being as the ultimate moral goal. Rather than focusing on obedience to divine will or adherence to abstract rules, humanists evaluate actions by their consequences for human happiness, fulfillment, and development. This consequentialist orientation appears in various forms throughout the humanist tradition, from Epicurean hedonism to Bentham's utilitarianism to contemporary welfare-based ethical theories. What unites these approaches is their concern with improving actual human lives rather than conforming to transcendent ideals. This focus on flourishing provides practical guidance for addressing moral questions from personal ethics to public policy. Critics have sometimes charged that without religious foundations, humanist ethics lacks absolute certainty or binding force. Humanists respond that ethical certainty is neither possible nor desirable—moral progress requires ongoing dialogue and revision in light of new evidence and perspectives. Moreover, they argue that grounding ethics in human well-being provides more reliable guidance than appeals to divine will, which has historically been interpreted in contradictory ways to justify everything from compassion to cruelty. The humanist approach acknowledges moral complexity while providing principled guidance for addressing ethical challenges. The humanist ethical framework extends beyond individual conduct to social and political arrangements. If human flourishing represents the ultimate moral goal, then social institutions should be evaluated based on their contribution to this end rather than their conformity to tradition or religious doctrine. This perspective has led humanists to advocate for political systems that protect individual rights while promoting collective welfare. From Enlightenment arguments for democratic governance to contemporary campaigns for social justice, humanists have worked to create social conditions that enable all humans to develop their capabilities and pursue fulfilling lives. Environmental ethics represents an important development in contemporary humanist moral thinking. Recognizing that human flourishing depends on ecological sustainability, humanists increasingly incorporate environmental concerns into their ethical frameworks. This ecological turn does not abandon humanist values but extends them to include consideration of future generations and sometimes other sentient beings. By acknowledging our interdependence with natural systems, ecological humanism maintains the tradition's focus on flourishing while addressing contemporary environmental challenges. This evolution demonstrates how humanist ethics can adapt to new knowledge and circumstances while maintaining its core commitment to improving human welfare through rational and compassionate action.

Chapter 5: Challenging Authority: Humanists as Agents of Social Progress

Throughout history, humanists have consistently challenged entrenched authority and traditional power structures when these have impeded human freedom and well-being. This critical stance toward authority stems not from anarchistic impulses but from the humanist commitment to rational evaluation of claims and institutions. By subjecting traditional authorities to critical scrutiny, humanists have helped expose unjustified hierarchies and arbitrary exercises of power that diminish human dignity and potential. From Renaissance scholars questioning ecclesiastical corruption to Enlightenment philosophers challenging monarchical absolutism to contemporary activists opposing authoritarian regimes, the humanist tradition has consistently promoted social progress through reasoned critique of established power. The humanist critique of religious authority represents one of its most significant contributions to social progress. From Erasmus's satire of ecclesiastical corruption to Voltaire's campaign against religious intolerance, humanists have challenged religious institutions' claims to absolute authority over thought and behavior. This critique does not necessarily entail rejection of religious belief itself but rather opposes dogmatism and the use of religion to suppress intellectual freedom or justify oppression. By advocating separation of church and state and freedom of conscience, humanists helped establish the foundations for modern pluralistic societies where diverse beliefs can coexist without state-enforced orthodoxy. Political authority has likewise faced humanist scrutiny. From Locke's arguments for limited government to Paine's revolutionary pamphlets, humanists have insisted that political power derives its legitimacy from consent of the governed rather than divine right or tradition. This democratic impulse within humanism emphasizes that governments exist to serve human needs and protect human rights, not to impose arbitrary rule. When political systems fail to fulfill these functions, humanists have often been at the forefront of reform movements seeking to make governance more responsive to human welfare and dignity. This political dimension distinguishes humanism from purely contemplative philosophical traditions. The humanist challenge to authority extends to intellectual domains as well. By questioning received wisdom and encouraging independent thought, humanists have advanced knowledge across disciplines. The scientific revolution itself reflected humanist principles of empirical investigation and rational skepticism toward traditional explanations. Similarly, humanist historians pioneered critical approaches to historical evidence that challenged mythological accounts of the past. This intellectual independence continues to characterize humanist approaches to knowledge, which value evidence and argument over appeals to authority or tradition. Contemporary humanists promote scientific literacy and critical thinking as essential for addressing complex social problems. Throughout history, humanists have worked to extend rights and opportunities to marginalized groups. From early feminist humanists like Mary Wollstonecraft arguing for women's education to abolitionists challenging slavery to civil rights activists opposing racial discrimination, the humanist tradition has consistently expanded its circle of moral concern. This progressive impulse reflects the universalist dimension of humanism—the recognition that all humans possess inherent dignity and deserve equal consideration regardless of contingent differences in identity or circumstance. Contemporary humanists continue this work by addressing persistent forms of discrimination and structural injustice that undermine human flourishing. The humanist approach to social progress emphasizes gradual reform through reasoned persuasion rather than violent revolution or utopian schemes. While recognizing the need for structural change, humanists typically advocate methods that respect democratic processes and individual rights. This reformist orientation reflects the humanist recognition of human fallibility and the complexity of social systems. Rather than claiming perfect solutions to social problems, humanists promote ongoing dialogue, evidence-based policy, and institutional accountability. This approach combines moral commitment with intellectual humility, acknowledging both the necessity of social improvement and the challenges involved in achieving it through human agency rather than divine intervention.

Chapter 6: Diversity Within Unity: Humanism's Universal and Particular Dimensions

While affirming universal human dignity and rights, humanism also recognizes and celebrates human diversity. This dual commitment to universality and particularity distinguishes humanism from both relativistic perspectives that deny common human values and totalizing ideologies that suppress individual and cultural differences. Humanists maintain that acknowledging our shared humanity need not erase the rich variety of human experiences and cultural expressions that enrich collective life. This balanced approach has allowed humanism to develop as a global tradition with diverse expressions while maintaining core commitments to human dignity, rational inquiry, and ethical responsibility. Cultural diversity represents a central humanist value rather than an obstacle to humanist universalism. From Montaigne's reflections on cultural differences to contemporary multicultural humanism, the tradition has emphasized how exposure to diverse perspectives expands our understanding of human possibilities. This appreciation for diversity stems from the humanist recognition that human flourishing takes many forms and that different cultures have developed valuable insights and practices. Rather than imposing a single model of the good life, humanists advocate cultural exchange and mutual learning. This openness to diversity distinguishes humanism from more dogmatic philosophical and religious traditions. The humanist approach to diversity extends to individual differences as well. Recognizing that humans vary in their capacities, preferences, and life circumstances, humanists have defended the right of individuals to pursue their own conceptions of fulfillment within ethical constraints. John Stuart Mill's defense of "experiments in living" exemplifies this humanist commitment to individual self-determination and pluralism. This individualist strand within humanism balances its universalist aspirations, acknowledging that respect for human dignity requires respecting the diverse ways people choose to express their humanity. Contemporary humanists continue to defend personal autonomy in matters ranging from religious belief to sexual orientation to end-of-life decisions. Despite this emphasis on diversity, humanists maintain that certain experiences and capacities unite us across cultural and individual differences. Our shared vulnerability to suffering, capacity for reason, need for meaning, and potential for empathy provide the basis for cross-cultural understanding and moral concern. These universal elements of human experience make possible the connections between individuals and groups that humanists have long celebrated—connections forged through dialogue, literature, art, and shared ethical commitments that transcend particular identities while respecting their significance. This universalist dimension grounds humanist advocacy for human rights and global justice. The relationship between universal humanist values and particular cultural expressions has generated significant debate. Postcolonial critics have questioned whether humanist universalism sometimes masks Western cultural imperialism, imposing particular values under the guise of universal human nature. Religious thinkers argue that secular humanism itself represents a particular tradition rather than a universal perspective. Humanists respond by acknowledging the cultural and historical contingency of specific humanist formulations while maintaining that core values like dignity, reason, and compassion have emerged independently across diverse cultures. Contemporary humanists increasingly engage with non-Western philosophical traditions to develop more inclusive humanist frameworks. The tension between universality and particularity remains productive within humanist thought, generating ongoing dialogue about how to affirm shared human values while respecting cultural and individual differences. Rather than resolving this tension through abstract formulas, humanists address it through practical engagement with specific issues and contexts. This pragmatic approach allows humanism to evolve through encounter with diverse perspectives while maintaining its core commitment to human flourishing. By balancing universal aspirations with respect for particularity, humanism offers resources for addressing contemporary challenges in our increasingly interconnected yet diverse global society.

Chapter 7: Modern Humanism: Addressing Contemporary Challenges

Modern humanism continues to evolve while maintaining its core commitment to human dignity, rational inquiry, and ethical responsibility. Contemporary humanist organizations advocate for secular ethics, scientific literacy, and human rights across diverse societies. In an age of religious resurgence and political polarization, humanist principles offer a middle path between dogmatic certainty and moral relativism—affirming shared values while remaining open to revision and dialogue. This balanced approach addresses many contemporary challenges, from bioethical dilemmas to environmental crises, which require both ethical commitment and intellectual flexibility. The humanist emphasis on critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning remains particularly vital in our information-saturated environment. As misinformation spreads through digital networks and complex issues are reduced to partisan slogans, the humanist tradition of careful analysis and intellectual honesty provides essential cognitive tools. Modern humanists promote educational approaches that develop these capacities, recognizing that democratic societies depend on citizens who can evaluate claims independently rather than simply accepting authority. This educational mission extends the Renaissance humanist project of cultivating human potential through learning and critical engagement with diverse perspectives. Environmental sustainability represents one of the most pressing challenges for contemporary humanism. Traditional humanist thought sometimes positioned humans as separate from and superior to nature, potentially justifying environmental exploitation. Modern humanists increasingly recognize that human flourishing depends on ecological health and that our moral concern should extend to future generations and other species. This ecological turn does not abandon humanist values but extends them to include consideration of our interdependence with natural systems. By incorporating scientific understanding of environmental processes with ethical concern for long-term human welfare, ecological humanism addresses one of our most urgent global challenges. Technological developments pose both opportunities and challenges for humanist values. Artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and other emerging technologies raise profound questions about human nature and dignity. The possibility of enhancing human capabilities through technology has led to transhumanist movements that extend humanist concerns with human flourishing in radical new directions. Meanwhile, digital technologies create new possibilities for both liberation and control, requiring humanist defenses of privacy, autonomy, and intellectual freedom in digital contexts. These developments require humanists to apply their ethical principles to unprecedented situations while maintaining commitment to human dignity and flourishing. The persistence of religious belief in modern societies challenges humanists to articulate their values in pluralistic contexts. Rather than adopting militant secularism that antagonizes religious communities, many contemporary humanists seek dialogue and cooperation with moderate religious voices on issues of common concern. This approach recognizes that religious and humanist traditions often share commitments to human dignity, compassion, and social justice, despite differences in metaphysical beliefs. By focusing on practical ethics rather than theological disputes, humanists build coalitions to address shared challenges while maintaining their distinctive naturalistic perspective. Perhaps most fundamentally, modern humanism addresses the perennial human need for meaning and purpose without supernatural appeals. In societies characterized by religious diversity and increasing secularization, humanist approaches to meaning-making through personal commitment, social connection, and engagement with art and nature offer valuable alternatives to traditional religious frameworks. By affirming that human life can be meaningful without divine purpose—that we create significance through our choices and relationships—contemporary humanism provides existential resources for navigating an uncertain world with courage and hope. This meaning-making dimension demonstrates that humanism offers not just critical tools but positive vision for human flourishing in a natural universe.

Summary

Humanism represents one of humanity's most enduring attempts to find meaning and ethical guidance within the natural world rather than through supernatural authority. Throughout its long history—from ancient philosophical schools to Renaissance revival of classical learning, from Enlightenment challenges to religious dogma to modern scientific understanding—humanism has consistently emphasized human dignity, rational inquiry, and the possibility of creating meaning through our choices and relationships. While adapting to different historical contexts and incorporating new knowledge, humanist thought maintains certain core commitments: valuing evidence over dogma, promoting human flourishing, respecting individual autonomy, and fostering compassionate community. The contemporary relevance of humanism lies in its unique combination of intellectual humility and moral courage. It acknowledges the limitations of human knowledge while maintaining that we can improve our understanding through careful observation, critical thinking, and open dialogue. It recognizes human capacity for both cruelty and kindness while working to cultivate the latter through education, institutions, and personal development. In a world facing unprecedented challenges—from climate change to artificial intelligence, from religious extremism to democratic backsliding—humanism offers a framework that values both scientific understanding and human meaning, both individual freedom and social responsibility. Its vision of humans as capable but fallible beings, responsible for creating meaning in a natural universe, provides a foundation for addressing these challenges with both realism and hope.

About Author

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Sarah Bakewell

Sarah Bakewell was a bookseller and a curator of early printed books at the Wellcome Library before publishing her highly acclaimed biographies The Smart, The English Dane, and the best-selling How to Live: A Life of Montaigne, which won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography. In addition to writing, she now teaches in the Masters of Studies in Creative Writing at Kellogg College, University of Oxford. She lives in London.

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