India After Gandhi

India After Gandhi Plot Summary

Introduction

On the sweltering night of August 14, 1947, as the clock struck midnight, Jawaharlal Nehru rose to address a newly independent nation with words that would echo through history: "At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom." This moment marked not just the end of colonial rule but the beginning of an extraordinary experiment in democracy. How could a nation of such staggering diversity—hundreds of languages, all major world religions, and deeply entrenched social hierarchies—possibly forge a unified democratic identity? The odds seemed insurmountable, yet India not only survived but eventually thrived as the world's largest democracy. This remarkable journey reveals profound insights into the resilience of democratic institutions under extreme pressure. Through partition violence, wars with neighboring countries, internal rebellions, and even a period of emergency rule, India's commitment to democracy bent but never broke. For anyone interested in how diverse societies navigate the complex path toward freedom and development, India offers invaluable lessons. Its story illuminates the delicate balance between unity and diversity, tradition and modernity, and shows how a postcolonial nation can forge its own unique path while confronting challenges that continue to resonate across the developing world today.

Chapter 1: Partition's Shadow: Building a Secular Nation (1947-1950)

Freedom came to India on August 15, 1947, but it arrived with the traumatic birth pangs of partition. The division of British India into two separate nations—India and Pakistan—triggered one of history's largest mass migrations, with approximately 15 million people crossing newly drawn borders. Hindus and Sikhs fled Pakistan while Muslims fled areas that would become India. The violence that accompanied this population exchange claimed hundreds of thousands of lives and left deep psychological scars on the national consciousness. Amid this chaos, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and his colleagues faced the monumental task of building a unified nation from extraordinary diversity. Unlike Pakistan, which defined itself as an Islamic homeland, India chose the more difficult path of secular democracy where citizenship would not be tied to religious identity. This choice was particularly significant given that India retained a substantial Muslim minority of over 40 million people after partition. The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in January 1948 by a Hindu extremist highlighted the dangerous religious tensions threatening this secular vision. Another critical challenge was integrating the princely states into the Indian Union. When the British departed, they left behind more than 560 semi-autonomous princely states that theoretically became independent. Home Minister Vallabhbhai Patel masterfully negotiated the accession of most states through a combination of diplomacy, pressure, and promises. The integration of Hyderabad required military intervention in what was euphemistically called a "police action," while the status of Kashmir remained contested after tribal forces from Pakistan invaded in October 1947, leading to the first Indo-Pakistani War. While managing these external challenges, India's leaders were simultaneously drafting a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly, chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar himself from the "untouchable" caste, worked for nearly three years to create a document that would guide the world's largest democracy. The Constitution, adopted on November 26, 1949, established a federal structure with a strong central government, guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens, and included special provisions for disadvantaged groups. When it came into effect on January 26, 1950, India officially became a republic, marking the completion of its transition from colonial rule to sovereign nationhood. The period from 1947 to 1950 laid the foundation for modern India's identity as a democratic, secular republic. Despite the trauma of partition, the assassination of Gandhi, and numerous territorial disputes, India managed to establish a constitutional framework that acknowledged its diversity while providing mechanisms for national unity. As Nehru wrote to chief ministers in 1947, "We have a Muslim minority who are so large in numbers that they cannot, even if they want, go anywhere else. They have to live in India. If we fail to give them security and the rights of citizens in a democratic State, we shall have a festering sore which will eventually poison the whole body politic." This foundational period established patterns that would define India for decades to come: a commitment to democracy despite overwhelming challenges, a secular approach to religious diversity, and a federal structure flexible enough to accommodate regional aspirations while maintaining essential unity. The remarkable achievement of establishing democratic institutions amid such turbulent beginnings would be tested repeatedly in the years ahead.

Chapter 2: Nehru's Vision: Democratic Foundations and Global Positioning (1950-1964)

The fourteen years of Nehru's leadership after India became a republic were defined by his ambitious vision to transform a newly independent nation into a modern, democratic state. The first general election, held between October 1951 and February 1952, represented an extraordinary experiment in democracy. With 176 million eligible voters, most of whom were illiterate, it was described by Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen as "the biggest experiment in democracy in human history." The logistics were staggering: 224,000 polling stations were constructed, equipped with 2 million steel ballot boxes, requiring 8,200 tonnes of steel. To help illiterate voters identify parties, pictorial symbols were used—a pair of bullocks for Congress, a lamp for another party, an elephant for a third. Economically, Nehru pursued a mixed economy model with an emphasis on planned development. The Planning Commission, established in 1950 under his chairmanship, launched India's first Five-Year Plan focusing primarily on agriculture and infrastructure. The more ambitious Second Five-Year Plan shifted emphasis toward rapid industrialization, particularly heavy industries like steel, chemicals, and machine tools. Massive projects like steel plants at Bhilai, Rourkela, and Durgapur, and multipurpose dams like Bhakra-Nangal became what Nehru called "the temples of modern India." This approach, influenced partly by the Soviet model but adapted to India's democratic context, aimed to achieve self-reliance and reduce dependence on foreign imports. On the international stage, Nehru established India as a leading voice of the non-aligned movement. Refusing to align with either the American or Soviet bloc during the Cold War, he instead advocated for a "third way" for newly independent nations. This position was formalized at the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia, where representatives from 29 Asian and African nations gathered to promote economic and cultural cooperation and oppose colonialism. Nehru's moral authority in international affairs gave India influence disproportionate to its economic or military power, though critics argued that his idealism sometimes overlooked practical security concerns. The most significant challenge to Nehru's foreign policy came from China. Despite his efforts to build friendship with China through the Panchsheel Agreement of 1954, border disputes escalated after the 1959 Tibetan uprising when the Dalai Lama fled to India. The situation deteriorated into open conflict in October 1962 when Chinese forces launched coordinated attacks across the disputed borders. The Indian Army, ill-prepared and poorly equipped, suffered a humiliating defeat. This brief but traumatic war shattered Nehru's foreign policy vision and forced a more pragmatic approach to international relations in subsequent years. Domestically, one of Nehru's greatest achievements was managing India's extraordinary diversity through democratic accommodation. The States Reorganization Act of 1956 redrew India's internal boundaries along linguistic lines, creating states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Rather than fragmenting the nation as some feared, this recognition of linguistic identities within the federal framework ultimately strengthened national unity. Similarly, Nehru's commitment to secularism—ensuring that the state remained neutral in religious matters while protecting the rights of all religious communities—provided a framework for managing India's complex religious landscape. By the time of Nehru's death in May 1964, he had established the fundamental patterns that would define India for decades: a democratic political system with regular elections and peaceful transfers of power, a mixed economy with a strong public sector, and a foreign policy of non-alignment. While critics pointed to the persistence of poverty and the defeat by China as significant failures, Nehru had succeeded in his most fundamental task—establishing democratic institutions strong enough to survive his passing. As American ambassador Chester Bowles observed after witnessing India's first election: "In Asia, as in America, I know no grander vision than this, government by the consent of the governed."

Chapter 3: Indira's India: From Populism to Emergency (1966-1977)

When Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in January 1966 following Lal Bahadur Shastri's sudden death, few expected her to last long in office. Initially viewed as a temporary compromise candidate, a "dumb doll" (gungi gudiya) in the hands of the Congress Party's power brokers, she was severely underestimated. Within a few years, she would transform Indian politics through a combination of populist policies, personal charisma, and increasingly authoritarian tendencies. India faced multiple crises in the late 1960s. The economy struggled with food shortages following two consecutive drought years, requiring massive wheat imports from America. The 1967 elections saw the Congress Party lose control of several state governments for the first time since independence. Student protests erupted across the country, while in Bihar, Jayaprakash Narayan emerged as the leader of a movement against corruption. Indira Gandhi responded to these challenges by reinventing herself as a champion of the poor, presenting a ten-point program including "social control" of banking and abolition of princely privileges. This leftward turn culminated in the nationalization of fourteen major banks in 1969, which she justified as necessary to ensure credit reached "millions of farmers, artisans, and other self-employed persons" rather than just big business. When the Congress Party's old guard (known as the "Syndicate") resisted her policies, she split the party, forming her own Congress (R) faction. Running on the slogan "Garibi Hatao" (Remove Poverty) in the 1971 elections, she won a landslide victory that gave her an overwhelming personal mandate independent of the party organization. The high point of Indira Gandhi's popularity came with India's victory in the 1971 Bangladesh War. When Pakistan's military launched a brutal crackdown on East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), millions of refugees fled to India. After diplomatic efforts failed to resolve the crisis, India intervened militarily in December 1971, leading to the creation of independent Bangladesh. The swift victory was hailed as "India's first military victory in centuries," and Mrs. Gandhi was compared to the goddess Durga by admiring supporters. However, by 1973, economic problems were mounting again. Inflation soared following the global oil crisis, while drought affected large parts of the country. Opposition to her government grew, culminating in the "JP Movement" led by Jayaprakash Narayan, which called for "total revolution." In June 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Mrs. Gandhi guilty of minor election malpractices and invalidated her election to Parliament. Rather than resign while appealing to the Supreme Court, she chose to declare a state of Emergency, suspending civil liberties and arresting thousands of opposition leaders and activists. The 21-month Emergency (1975-77) represented the darkest period for Indian democracy. Press censorship was imposed, with newspapers required to submit content for approval before publication. An estimated 36,000 people were detained without trial under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act. The Constitution was amended to increase executive power and limit judicial review. Mrs. Gandhi's younger son, Sanjay, emerged as an extra-constitutional authority, directing government policy, particularly his "five-point program" focusing on family planning and slum clearance. The sterilization campaign became notoriously coercive, with government employees required to meet quotas. On January 18, 1977, Mrs. Gandhi surprised both supporters and opponents by announcing fresh elections. When the results came in, the Congress Party was decisively defeated, and a coalition called the Janata Party formed India's first non-Congress government. The Emergency had demonstrated both the vulnerability and the resilience of Indian democracy—vulnerable to subversion by a determined leader, yet resilient enough to restore democratic processes when given the opportunity. As political scientist Rajni Kothari observed, the Emergency revealed that "the roots of Indian democracy were still shallow," but its eventual defeat showed that "the idea of democracy had struck deeper than many had thought."

Chapter 4: Religious Tensions and Regional Challenges (1977-1989)

The period from 1977 to 1989 witnessed increasing challenges to India's secular framework and national unity, as religious and regional identities became more assertive in the political arena. The Janata government that came to power in 1977 represented the first non-Congress administration at the center, but it proved short-lived. Internal contradictions between its constituent elements—ranging from Hindu nationalists to socialists—led to its collapse by 1979. Indira Gandhi returned to power in 1980, facing a country increasingly divided along religious, regional, and ethnic lines. The most serious challenge to national unity emerged in Punjab, where Sikh demands for greater autonomy evolved into a violent separatist movement. The Akali Dal, the main Sikh political party, presented the Anandpur Sahib Resolution demanding greater state rights and recognition of Sikh religious identity. As negotiations with the central government stalled, extremist elements gained strength. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, a charismatic preacher who claimed Sikhs "were slaves in independent India," established a heavily armed base within the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar, Sikhism's holiest shrine. After numerous failed negotiations, Indira Gandhi ordered Operation Bluestar in June 1984—a military assault on the Golden Temple. The operation succeeded in killing Bhindranwale and his lieutenants but at a terrible cost: hundreds of civilians died in the crossfire, and the Sikh community was deeply alienated. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards. Her son Rajiv was immediately sworn in as Prime Minister. In the days that followed, anti-Sikh riots erupted across northern India, particularly in Delhi, where over 3,000 Sikhs were murdered. Congress politicians actively directed the violence, while the police looked on or participated. Simultaneously, Hindu-Muslim tensions were rising, centered on the dispute over the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya. In February 1986, a district judge ordered the opening of locks on a small Hindu shrine inside the 16th-century mosque, which many Hindus claimed was built on the birthplace of Lord Ram. This decision emboldened the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) to demand the mosque's demolition and replacement with a Ram temple. The Ayodhya dispute became the focal point for a growing Hindu nationalist movement that would transform Indian politics in the following decade. Kashmir, which had remained relatively stable despite its disputed status, began showing signs of serious unrest. The 1987 state elections were blatantly rigged in favor of the National Conference-Congress alliance, alienating many Kashmiri youth who began looking to Pakistan for support. By 1989, the Kashmir Valley was witnessing shootings, bomb blasts, and grenade attacks, with militant groups gaining strength and popular support. The exodus of Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) from the Valley further complicated the situation, adding another dimension to the religious tensions affecting the region. These religious conflicts were accompanied by ethnic and regional movements demanding greater autonomy or separate statehood. In Assam, the All-Assam Students Union led a movement against "foreign nationals" (primarily Bengali-speaking immigrants), resulting in violent clashes. In Darjeeling, Nepali-speakers demanded a separate Gorkhaland. In the Northeast, various tribal groups pursued armed struggles for autonomy or independence, reflecting the complex ethnic mosaic of the region. By 1989, India's political landscape had fundamentally changed. The Congress Party's dominance was eroding, with regional parties gaining strength in several states. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which had won just two seats in 1984, was rising rapidly by mobilizing Hindu identity politics around the Ayodhya issue. The decade ended with the formation of a National Front government under V.P. Singh, supported from outside by both the BJP and the Communist parties—an unlikely arrangement that reflected the increasingly fragmented nature of Indian politics. As India entered the 1990s, the Nehruvian consensus around secularism and socialism was giving way to a more competitive and identity-based political landscape.

Chapter 5: Economic Liberalization and Identity Politics (1990-2000)

The 1990s represented a watershed decade that fundamentally transformed both India's economy and its political landscape. The decade began with multiple crises: a severe balance of payments problem, escalating religious tensions centered on the Ayodhya dispute, and increasing caste-based mobilization following the implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations reserving 27% of government jobs for "Other Backward Classes" (OBCs). The economic crisis of 1991 proved to be a blessing in disguise. With foreign exchange reserves reduced to just enough for two weeks of imports, India approached the International Monetary Fund for an emergency loan. The conditions attached to this assistance, combined with the collapse of the Soviet Union (India's major trading partner), created both necessity and opportunity for fundamental economic reforms. Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and his Finance Minister, Manmohan Singh, dismantled the "License-Permit-Quota Raj" that had constrained Indian business for decades. Industrial licensing was abolished for most sectors, import tariffs were reduced, the rupee was made partially convertible, and foreign investment was welcomed in many industries. These reforms unleashed entrepreneurial energies that had been stifled by excessive regulation. The information technology sector emerged as a particular success story, with companies like Infosys and Wipro becoming global players. Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Pune developed into technology hubs, creating a new class of urban professionals. Economic growth accelerated from the "Hindu rate of growth" (around 3.5% annually) to over 6% by the end of the decade. However, the benefits of liberalization were unevenly distributed, with some regions and social groups advancing rapidly while others remained marginalized. Parallel to these economic changes, Indian politics was being reshaped by identity-based mobilization. The implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations by the V.P. Singh government in 1990 triggered violent protests from upper-caste students who saw their job prospects threatened. The BJP, seeking to counter this caste-based politics with religious unity, intensified its campaign for building a Ram temple at the disputed site in Ayodhya. L.K. Advani's "Rath Yatra" (chariot procession) across northern India mobilized Hindu sentiment but also heightened communal tensions. On December 6, 1992, a mob of Hindu activists demolished the Babri Masjid, triggering nationwide riots that claimed over 2,000 lives. This event marked a turning point in India's post-independence history, severely damaging its secular fabric. The demolition and subsequent violence strengthened the BJP's position as the champion of Hindu interests, while leaving Muslims feeling increasingly vulnerable and marginalized. The Congress Party, which had dominated Indian politics since independence largely through its claim to represent all communities, found its secular credentials questioned and its support base eroding. The political fragmentation that began in the 1980s accelerated during this decade. Regional parties gained strength across India: the Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, the DMK and AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, the Samajwadi Party and Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh. National elections in 1996, 1998, and 1999 resulted in coalition governments, marking the end of single-party dominance. The BJP-led National Democratic Alliance that came to power in 1998 represented the first stable non-Congress government since independence. By the end of the decade, India had become both more integrated into the global economy and more divided along lines of religion, caste, and region. The nuclear tests conducted in May 1998 announced India's arrival as a nuclear power and reflected a more assertive nationalism. Economic liberalization had created new opportunities and aspirations, particularly among the urban middle class, but had not addressed fundamental inequalities. The rise of identity politics had given voice to previously marginalized groups but had also fragmented the national political discourse. As India entered the new millennium, it faced the challenge of balancing its newfound economic dynamism with its longstanding commitment to pluralism and social justice.

Chapter 6: Rise to Global Power: Democracy Under Pressure (2000-2020)

The first two decades of the 21st century witnessed India's emergence as a significant global player, even as its democratic institutions faced mounting pressures from within. Economically, this period saw India achieve unprecedented growth rates, averaging around 7-8% annually in the early 2000s, making it one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. The information technology sector continued its remarkable expansion, with Indian companies becoming global players and cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Pune developing into technology hubs that attracted international investment and talent. This economic transformation created a substantial middle class—estimated at between 200-300 million people—with new patterns of consumption and aspiration. Shopping malls, multiplexes, and international brands became fixtures in urban India, while mobile phone penetration reached even remote villages. However, this growth also widened inequalities between regions, between urban and rural areas, and between social groups. Agricultural distress persisted, with thousands of farmer suicides highlighting the dark side of India's economic miracle. Environmental challenges, particularly air pollution in major cities and water scarcity across regions, emerged as serious threats to sustainable development. Politically, the early part of this period was characterized by coalition governments and the growing importance of regional parties. The Congress-led United Progressive Alliance governed from 2004 to 2014 under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, implementing significant rights-based legislation including the Right to Information Act, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, and the Right to Education Act. These measures expanded citizens' entitlements and created new mechanisms for accountability, though their implementation often fell short of their ambitious goals. The 2014 election marked a watershed moment with Narendra Modi's Bharatiya Janata Party winning an outright majority, the first single-party majority in three decades. Modi's leadership style represented a sharp break from the consensus-based approach of previous governments, with more centralized decision-making and a stronger emphasis on Hindu cultural nationalism. His government implemented bold policy initiatives, including the demonetization of high-value currency notes in 2016, the implementation of a nationwide Goods and Services Tax, and the abrogation of Article 370 that granted special status to Jammu and Kashmir. These years also saw intensified debates about India's secular character. Critics argued that religious minorities, particularly Muslims, faced increasing marginalization and occasional violence, pointing to incidents like the 2002 Gujarat riots and the rise in lynchings related to cow protection. Supporters contended that the government was merely correcting historical imbalances and asserting a more authentic national identity based on India's Hindu cultural heritage. The construction of a Ram temple in Ayodhya, following a Supreme Court verdict in 2019, symbolized this cultural assertion. India's global profile rose substantially during this period. Its strategic partnership with the United States deepened, while relations with China grew more complex and competitive, culminating in border clashes in 2020. India positioned itself as a champion of climate action despite its development needs, committing to ambitious renewable energy targets. The country's soft power expanded through its diaspora, cinema, yoga, and cultural diplomacy. India's response to global crises, including its pharmaceutical manufacturing capacity during the COVID-19 pandemic, further enhanced its international standing. Digital technology transformed Indian society in profound ways. The Aadhaar biometric identification system enrolled over a billion citizens, while the Unified Payments Interface revolutionized financial transactions. These innovations helped extend government services to previously excluded populations but also raised concerns about privacy and surveillance. Social media platforms became powerful forces in shaping public discourse, sometimes amplifying polarization and misinformation. As India approached the 75th anniversary of its independence, its democratic institutions showed signs of strain. Press freedom indices registered declines, civil society organizations faced increasing restrictions, and the independence of institutions like the Election Commission and the judiciary was questioned by critics. Yet the fundamental resilience of Indian democracy remained evident in vibrant electoral participation, judicial interventions against executive overreach, and the continuing ability of citizens to organize and express dissent, even if in more constrained forms than before.

Summary

The story of modern India represents one of history's most remarkable experiments in democracy and pluralism. From the trauma of partition to its emergence as a global power, India has defied countless predictions of its imminent collapse or fragmentation. The central tension running through this narrative is the persistent struggle to forge unity amid extraordinary diversity—of languages, religions, castes, and economic conditions. This balancing act has required continuous negotiation between competing visions of national identity: Nehru's secular modernism, Indira Gandhi's populist centralization, the assertion of regional and caste identities in the 1980s and 1990s, and the more recent rise of Hindu cultural nationalism. The Indian experience offers profound lessons for our contemporary world. First, it demonstrates that democracy can take root and flourish in conditions of poverty and diversity, challenging deterministic theories that link democratic success solely to economic development or cultural homogeneity. Second, it shows that national identity need not be based on a single language, religion, or ethnicity, but can instead embrace pluralism as its defining characteristic. Finally, India's ongoing struggles with inequality, environmental challenges, and social justice remind us that democracy is not a destination but a continuous journey requiring constant renewal and reform. As the world's largest democracy navigates the complex currents of the 21st century, its ability to maintain democratic vitality while addressing profound social and economic challenges will remain one of the most consequential stories of our time.

About Author

Loading...

Ramachandra Guha

Ramachandra Guha was born in Dehradun in 1958, and educated in Delhi and Calcutta. He has taught at the University of Oslo, Stanford, and Yale, and at the Indian Institute of Science. He has been a Fellow of the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, and also served as the Indo-American Community Chair Visiting Professor at the University of California at Berkeley.After a peripatetic academic career, with five jobs in ten years on three continents, Guha settled down to become a full-time writer based in Bangalore. His books cover a wide range of themes, including a global history of environmentalism, a biography of an anthropologist-activist, a social history of Indian cricket, and a social history of Himalayan peasants. Guha’s books and essays have been translated into more than twenty languages. The prizes they have won include the U.K. Cricket Society’s Literary Award and the Leopold-Hidy Prize of the American Society of Environmental History.

Read more