Making the Modern World

Making the Modern World Plot Summary

Introduction

For most of human history, our relationship with materials was defined by scarcity. Early humans carefully selected stones for tools, treasured rare metals, and built homes from whatever their local environment provided. The story of civilization is, in many ways, the story of how we learned to transform these limited natural resources into increasingly sophisticated and abundant materials. From the first fired pottery 20,000 years ago to today's carbon nanotubes and biodegradable plastics, our material journey reflects our evolving relationship with the natural world. This exploration takes us through the remarkable transformation from material scarcity to unprecedented abundance, and now toward the challenge of sustainability. We'll discover how ancient societies adapted to their material constraints with ingenious solutions, how the Industrial Revolution unleashed an explosion of material consumption, and how modern civilization faces the paradox of efficiency gains alongside accelerating resource use. The journey reveals not just technological evolution but deeper questions about human values, environmental limits, and what kind of material future we wish to create for ourselves and future generations.

Chapter 1: Nature's Materials: Early Human Adaptation and Innovation

Long before humans appeared, nature had already developed sophisticated material use. Marine organisms extracted calcium from seawater to build intricate shells, while termites moved tons of soil to construct elaborate mounds with sophisticated ventilation systems. These natural processes moved materials on scales comparable to modern human industry, with marine biomineralizers processing around 10 gigatons of calcium and silicon annually. When early humans emerged, they began using materials in increasingly complex ways. The oldest stone tools date back 2.6 million years, showing our ancestors' ability to select specific materials for their properties. By 164,000 years ago, humans were heat-treating stones to improve their flaking qualities. Wooden tools likely predated stone ones, though they rarely survived in the archaeological record. The oldest preserved wooden spears date to 400,000 years ago, predating Homo sapiens by 200,000 years. This material intelligence allowed humans to thrive in diverse environments, from arctic regions where Inuit created sophisticated skin-and-fur garments to tropical areas where different building techniques evolved. The transition to sedentary agricultural societies around 12,000 years ago accelerated material innovation. Permanent settlements created demand for durable construction materials and specialized tools. The development of fired pottery in Japan represented a transformative technology that allowed for food storage, cooking, and cultural expression through decoration. Similarly, the construction of megalithic monuments like Stonehenge demonstrates not only technical skill but sophisticated planning and social organization. Moving 50-ton stones over 30 kilometers required coordinated effort and engineering knowledge that archaeologists still struggle to fully explain. The development of lime production—requiring controlled firing at temperatures above 825°C—represented one of humanity's first industrial chemical processes. This material revolution paralleled and enabled the agricultural revolution, as new tools, storage facilities, and processing equipment became necessary for farming communities. The ability to modify materials through techniques like heat treatment represented a crucial cognitive leap that distinguished human technology from natural material use. By the dawn of ancient civilizations, humans had established the fundamental material categories that would sustain development for millennia: biomaterials from plants and animals, ceramics from fired earth, stone for construction and tools, and the first metals. These material foundations would support the rise of complex societies and eventually lead to the transformative material revolutions that would reshape human civilization. The relationship between humans and materials has always been one of adaptation and innovation, with each advance creating new possibilities for social organization and cultural expression.

Chapter 2: Traditional Materials in Ancient and Medieval Societies (pre-1500)

The material world of ancient civilizations was largely determined by local environments. In China's Shaanxi, people carved homes from silt; in Anatolia, they excavated limestone caves; in Japan, they built light wooden frames with bamboo and clay walls; while Mediterranean regions favored stone construction. These choices weren't arbitrary—East Asian preference for wooden housing over Europe's stone structures reflected adaptation to frequent earthquakes, typhoons, and floods. Europeans, facing fewer natural disasters, opted for durability over flexibility. Ancient societies mastered monumental construction using materials that required ingenious quarrying, transport, and assembly techniques. Egypt's Great Pyramid at Giza remains the largest stone structure ever built, containing 2.5 million stones averaging 2.5 tons each, arranged with remarkable precision. Roman aqueducts and roads demonstrated similar engineering prowess, while South and Southeast Asian temples like Angkor Wat and Borobudur showcased intricate stone craftsmanship. Medieval Europe pushed stone architecture to new heights with Gothic cathedrals featuring arched vaults, flying buttresses, and tall spires—achievements made possible through modular design principles transferred between master builders. Metallurgy transformed these societies through a progression from copper to bronze to iron. Copper, first used about 10,000 years ago, was initially shaped cold before smelting techniques developed around 6,000 years ago. Bronze—an alloy of copper with 5-30% tin—emerged as the first practical metal alloy, offering nearly four times the tensile strength of copper. Iron eventually became the dominant metal after 1200 BCE, though its production remained artisanal and small-scale. The development of blast furnaces during the 14th century in the Rhine-Meuse region marked a significant advance, though their size remained limited by charcoal's inability to support heavy charges. Wood remained the most ubiquitous material throughout this period, used for buildings, tools, implements, machines, and ships. Japanese wooden structures like the Hōryūji pagoda in Nara (built 1,400 years ago) demonstrated sophisticated joinery techniques that allowed buildings to withstand earthquakes without using any metal fasteners. Ships required substantial timber resources—Homer credited Odysseus with cutting down 20 trees for his vessel, while Viking ships needed wood from 74 oaks. The durability of well-constructed wooden structures is remarkable, with some surviving centuries even in monsoon climates. Fired clay products—from bricks to pottery—became essential building materials, especially in alluvial plains. Mesopotamian ziggurats, palaces, and walls used both adobe and fired bricks. Roman buildings combined brick cores with marble cladding for efficiency and aesthetics. Buddhist stupas throughout Asia demonstrated the durability of fired brick construction, with structures like Sri Lanka's 122-meter tall Jetavanaramaya requiring between 93 and 200 million bricks. The development of concrete (opus cementitium) by Romans, combining lime mortar with volcanic sand, enabled spectacular structures like the Pantheon's coffered ceiling with its 43.2-meter dome span. The material achievements of ancient and medieval societies laid crucial foundations for later developments. Their innovations in metallurgy, construction techniques, and material processing represented not just technological advances but transformations in human organization and capability. The ability to build monumental structures, craft specialized tools, and create durable goods required sophisticated supply chains, specialized labor, and accumulated knowledge passed between generations. These material foundations would support the expanding trade networks and technological innovations that would characterize the early modern period.

Chapter 3: Industrial Revolution: The Birth of Material Abundance (1800-1900)

The nineteenth century marked a profound break with the material world of previous eras. While even advanced pre-industrial societies of the late eighteenth century were not radically different from their medieval precursors in terms of diets, living conditions, and material possessions, the Industrial Revolution transformed every aspect of material life. This transformation began in Britain, parts of Western Europe, and eastern USA, then spread to most European countries and across North America, with Japan becoming the first Asian country to begin modernization after 1870. The unprecedented expansion of traditional construction materials was a defining feature of this era, though often neglected by historians who focus on fossil fuels, metals, and machines. Stone had to be cut, blasted, crushed, and shaped, while enormous volumes of soil, sand, and clay were moved to span countries with railways and better roads, house millions of former peasants moving to cities, and build the productive infrastructure of modern economies. The reshaping of Paris directed by Georges Eugène Haussmann between 1853 and 1870 exemplifies this transformation, with an estimated 25 million tons of stone used for 40,000 new buildings that lined his straight, wide boulevards. Railway construction epitomizes the massive material mobilization of this period. Beginning in 1830 with a 56-kilometer line between Liverpool and Manchester, global railway length reached 100,000 kilometers thirty years later and 775,000 kilometers by 1900. A conservative estimate suggests that railway construction required nearly 2.5 billion cubic meters of bulk materials and at least 1.5-2 billion tons of crushed stone for ballast. The introduction of Portland cement by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 revolutionized construction by enabling the production of concrete that could be readily form-shaped and was strong under compression, though weak in tension. Iron and steel production underwent revolutionary changes that transformed every aspect of industry and transportation. Improvements in iron smelting reduced energy requirements from almost 300 gigajoules per ton in 1800 to less than 50 gigajoules per ton by 1900, making the metal much cheaper. The breakthrough for inexpensive steel came in 1856-57 when Henry Bessemer in England and William Kelly in the USA patented their decarburization process. By the late 1880s, the basic Bessemer process dominated both European and American steel production. Global production of pig iron rose from about 5 million tons in 1850 to more than 30 million tons by 1900, while steel output rose from just half a million tons in 1870 to 28 million tons by 1900. For the first time, inexpensive steel could be used to build structures, devices, and machines previously made of wrought iron or wood. In agriculture, steel went into moldboard ploughs, grain reapers, and the first horse-drawn combines, helping to open America's Great Plains for cultivation. Railways created huge demand for steel in locomotives, cars, and rails, while Lloyd's Register of Shipping's 1877 acceptance of steel as an insurable material transformed shipbuilding. Structural steel made skyscrapers possible by eliminating the need for thick load-bearing walls—Chicago's Home Insurance Building, completed in 1885, was the first tall structure where steel columns and beams carried the weight. New materials emerged alongside the transformation of traditional ones. Aluminum was discovered in 1825 but remained a novelty until the Hall-Héroult process, independently invented in 1886, enabled commercial production. Paper production was revolutionized by the Fourdrinier machine and the introduction of wood pulp in the 1870s, dramatically reducing costs and increasing output. The nineteenth century thus witnessed a material transformation of unprecedented scale and scope, laying the foundations for the modern world. The combination of new materials, improved processing techniques, and expanded transportation networks created a new material civilization that would continue to evolve and expand throughout the twentieth century.

Chapter 4: 20th Century Material Explosion and Mass Consumption

The twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented explosion in material production and consumption, driven by scientific advances, technological innovations, and expanding global trade. This era saw not only quantitative increases in traditional materials but also the introduction of entirely new substances that transformed every aspect of daily life. By the year 2000, global material flows had reached staggering proportions—steel production at 850 million tons annually (30 times higher than in 1900), aluminum output rising from less than 7,000 tons to nearly 25 million tons, and concrete production reaching levels that would have been unimaginable a century earlier. Steel's dominance continued throughout the century, but its production methods underwent revolutionary changes. Open-hearth furnaces remained the dominant producers until the 1960s, when they were gradually replaced by basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs) that could complete decarburization in only 35-45 minutes compared to 9-10 hours in open-hearth furnaces. This innovation, pioneered in Austria and rapidly adopted in Japan, boosted labor productivity 1,000-fold. By the century's end, BOFs produced slightly more than 70% of the world's steel, though they faced competition from electric arc furnaces using scrap metal. The continuous casting of hot steel, which speeds production and cuts metal losses, became standard practice, with nearly 90% of global steel output cast this way by 2000. Plastics emerged as the quintessential twentieth-century material. Although the first synthetic materials date to the 1870s, the real breakthrough came in 1907 when Leo Hendrik Baekeland prepared the world's first thermoset plastic, Bakelite. The 1930s became the unsurpassed era of major plastic discoveries, including neoprene, polystyrene, polyethylene, plexiglas, polyurethanes, nylon, and Teflon. Global production remained below 50,000 tons until the early 1930s but surpassed 6 million tons in 1960 and reached 265 million tons by 2010—more than six times the worldwide output of aluminum and equal to about 18% of steel production. Plastics transformed packaging, construction, transportation, and consumer goods, replacing traditional materials in countless applications. Perhaps the most consequential material innovation was the Haber-Bosch process for synthesizing ammonia, which enabled the mass production of nitrogen fertilizers. Fritz Haber demonstrated the practicality of catalytic synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen in 1909, and Carl Bosch transformed this laboratory demonstration into full-scale commercial synthesis in just four years. Global output of synthetic fertilizers rose from just 150,000 tons in 1920 to 85.13 million tons in 2000—an increase of two orders of magnitude in 80 years. By 2000, about 40% of nitrogen present in the world's food proteins came from fertilizers originating from the Haber-Bosch synthesis, making it possible to feed billions of people who would otherwise have starved. Electronics transformed modern civilization through the development of silicon-based technologies. Though silicon had been used for decades in metallurgy, its importance for electronics was unforeseen in 1900. The element's transformation from common sand to ultra-pure crystals for microchips represents one of the most remarkable material journeys in human history. By 2000, the production of electronic-grade polycrystalline silicon had reached about 23,000 tons, yielding about 7,500 tons of wafers for microchip fabrication. The increasing power of these chips, following Moore's Law of doubling transistor density approximately every two years, revolutionized communication, computation, and information storage. The material world of the twentieth century was characterized by unprecedented diversity and specialization. While the global population increased 3.8 times between 1900 and 2000, and the gross world product rose about 20-fold, material production increased at even higher rates—30 times for paper and steel, 27 times for copper, 570 times for synthetic fertilizers, 3,600 times for aluminum, and nearly 10,000 times for plastics. This material explosion supported unprecedented improvements in living standards but also created new environmental challenges that would become increasingly apparent in the twenty-first century.

Chapter 5: Global Material Flows: China's Rise and Environmental Challenges

The dawn of the 21st century marked the beginning of the most dramatic transformation in global material flows since the Industrial Revolution, driven primarily by China's extraordinary economic rise. This period has rewritten the rules of global material production, consumption, and trade in ways that would have been unimaginable just decades earlier, creating both unprecedented opportunities and daunting environmental challenges. China's emergence as the world's dominant steel producer represents perhaps the most remarkable material story of our time. In 2000, China produced 128 million tons of steel, already making it a major producer. By 2011, its output had soared to over 683 million tons, accounting for 45% of global production. This explosive growth—more than quintupling output in just over a decade—has no historical parallel. To put this in perspective, China now produces in less than two weeks what it took the entire year to produce in 1990. This massive steel expansion required equally massive inputs of raw materials. Unable to meet its needs domestically, China became the world's largest importer of iron ore, transforming global trade patterns. By 2010, China was importing 618 million tons of iron ore, nearly 60% of global trade and close to 70% of its domestic demand. China's material story extends far beyond steel. Its cement production experienced even more dramatic growth, rising from 595 million tons in 2000 to 2 billion tons by 2011. Remarkably, China used more cement in the three years between 2008 and 2010 (4.9 billion tons) than the United States used in the entire 20th century (4.56 billion tons). Similar patterns emerged across other materials, from aluminum and copper to rare earth minerals, where China established near-monopoly control of global production. This material explosion has come with significant environmental consequences. China's reliance on coal for energy has made it the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Air pollution from material production has reached crisis levels in many Chinese cities, while water pollution and soil contamination present long-term challenges. The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 temporarily interrupted material growth patterns, but China's stimulus-driven response actually accelerated its material consumption. By 2010, global material flows had not only recovered but reached new heights, with China accounting for an ever-larger share. This eastward shift in material gravity represents a fundamental realignment of global industrial power, one that continues to reshape everything from resource markets to geopolitics and environmental challenges. The environmental footprint of material production and use extends far beyond China. The steel industry alone accounts for approximately 6-7% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Material extraction and processing contribute significantly to water pollution, habitat destruction, and toxic waste generation. Perhaps most concerning is the global accumulation of non-biodegradable materials, particularly plastics. Despite growing awareness and recycling efforts, only about 9% of all plastic waste has been recycled, with 12% incinerated and 79% accumulating in landfills or the natural environment. The discovery of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in 1997 highlighted the global scale of plastic pollution, with studies estimating that at least 6.4 million tons of plastic litter enters the oceans annually. The flow of materials through modern economies represents a complex system with profound implications for energy use and environmental quality. Understanding these flows requires looking beyond simple production statistics to examine how materials move through societies—from extraction and processing to use, disposal, and potential recycling. Material flow accounts (MFAs) have emerged as a key tool for quantifying these movements, though they face significant methodological challenges in setting appropriate system boundaries and accounting for increasingly globalized supply chains. The challenges of the materials flow economy extend beyond current production to include the massive stocks of materials already embedded in infrastructure, buildings, and durable goods. The global stock of steel in use is estimated at 25-30 billion tons, concrete at hundreds of billions of tons, and aluminum at about 700 million tons. These stocks represent both valuable resources for future recycling and potential environmental liabilities.

Chapter 6: Dematerialization Paradox: Efficiency Gains vs. Growing Consumption

The concept of dematerialization—doing more with less material input—represents one of the most intriguing paradoxes of modern economic development. As societies advance technologically and economically, they typically become more efficient in their use of materials per unit of economic output. This relative dematerialization has been documented across numerous developed economies, with material intensity (material use per unit of GDP) declining consistently over time. In the United States, for example, the material intensity of the economy fell by about 60% between 1900 and 2000, while similar trends have been observed in European countries and Japan. This efficiency improvement stems from multiple sources. Technical innovations have reduced the material requirements for specific products and functions—modern smartphones combine devices that would have required hundreds of times more material just decades ago. Structural economic changes have shifted activity from material-intensive manufacturing toward services and information technology. Improved design and manufacturing processes have minimized waste and extended product lifespans. And substitution has replaced heavier materials with lighter alternatives—aluminum for steel in transportation, fiber optics for copper in telecommunications, and plastics for metals and glass in packaging and consumer goods. Specific examples of dematerialization are impressive. The mass of steel in automobiles has decreased significantly despite larger vehicle sizes, thanks to high-strength alloys and better design. Beverage containers have become dramatically lighter—aluminum cans now weigh 13 grams compared to 85 grams in the 1950s. Electronic devices have undergone perhaps the most dramatic transformations—modern integrated circuits contain billions of transistors in a space that once held dozens, while delivering exponentially greater performance. These achievements represent genuine technological progress and have reduced environmental impacts per unit of consumption. However, the paradox emerges when we examine absolute material consumption rather than relative efficiency. Despite impressive gains in material efficiency, total material use has continued to rise in most economies due to three countervailing forces. First, population growth multiplies the impact of even constant per capita consumption. Second, rising affluence increases consumption levels, as people acquire more goods and larger homes. Third, and perhaps most significant, is the rebound effect—efficiency improvements that reduce costs often stimulate additional consumption, partially or completely offsetting the potential material savings. The global evidence is clear: while material intensity has declined, absolute material consumption has increased substantially. World extraction of materials grew from about 22 billion tons in 1970 to approximately 70 billion tons by 2010, far outpacing population growth. Even in mature economies like the United States, absolute material consumption has continued to rise, albeit at a slower rate than GDP. The most dramatic growth has occurred in rapidly developing economies like China, where material consumption has increased more than tenfold since 1970, driven by massive infrastructure development and rising consumer affluence. This pattern raises profound questions about the sustainability of current development models. Can technological efficiency improvements alone offset the material demands of a growing global middle class? The evidence suggests not. While dematerialization represents a necessary condition for sustainable development, it appears insufficient without complementary changes in consumption patterns and economic structures. The challenge of dematerialization ultimately reflects deeper questions about the relationship between material consumption and human well-being. Research suggests that beyond moderate levels of affluence, additional material consumption contributes little to happiness or life satisfaction. This insight offers hope that societies might eventually decouple quality of life from ever-increasing material throughput.

Chapter 7: Toward Sustainable Materials: Circular Economy and Future Pathways

The future of material use stands at a crossroads between continued expansion and necessary constraints. Throughout history, predictions of resource depletion have been repeatedly overcome by technological innovation, substitution, and new discoveries. Yet the scale of current material flows raises legitimate questions about whether this pattern can continue indefinitely on a finite planet. The path forward likely involves elements of both technological optimism and ecological realism. Resource availability concerns have evolved from simplistic "running out" narratives to more nuanced understandings of accessibility, cost, and environmental impacts. For most materials, physical scarcity is not an immediate threat. The USGS estimates global iron ore reserves at more than 80 billion tons and resources at more than 230 billion tons, representing decades of supply at current consumption rates. Even for more specialized materials like copper and phosphate, recent resource assessments have identified sufficient reserves for centuries of use. However, declining ore grades mean that energy requirements and environmental impacts of extraction will likely increase over time. Technological innovation continues to expand the boundaries of what's possible with materials. New nanomaterials like graphene offer extraordinary properties—strength 100 times greater than steel, superior electronic conductivity, and exceptional thermal properties. Biocomposites derived from plant materials provide renewable alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Advanced manufacturing techniques like 3D printing enable complex designs with minimal material waste. These innovations suggest pathways toward maintaining or improving material services while reducing resource requirements. Circular economy approaches represent another promising direction. Current recycling rates vary widely by material—exceeding 70% for steel and aluminum in many developed economies, but remaining below 10% for most plastics. Significant opportunities exist to improve these rates through better product design, collection systems, and processing technologies. Beyond recycling, strategies like remanufacturing, product life extension, and sharing systems can reduce material throughput while maintaining economic value. Companies like Caterpillar have demonstrated the profitability of remanufacturing, rebuilding used components to new condition at a fraction of the material and energy cost. Policy frameworks will be essential for navigating toward sustainable material futures. Extended producer responsibility regulations, which make manufacturers responsible for the entire lifecycle of their products, have proven effective at increasing recycling rates and encouraging design for disassembly. Carbon pricing mechanisms can internalize environmental costs and drive decarbonization of material production. Public procurement policies can create markets for sustainable materials and products. International cooperation will be necessary to address the global nature of material flows and prevent "pollution havens" where environmental standards are weakest. Consumption patterns and social values will play a crucial role in determining future material flows. Research on happiness and life satisfaction consistently shows that beyond meeting basic needs, additional material consumption yields diminishing returns for wellbeing. Some affluent societies are beginning to show signs of "peak stuff," with younger generations expressing preferences for experiences over possessions and access over ownership. However, these trends remain limited to certain demographic groups and regions, while global consumer culture continues to expand. Developing economies face particular challenges and opportunities regarding material futures. Countries like China and India cannot simply replicate Western development patterns without overwhelming global resource systems. Yet they legitimately seek to improve material living standards for their populations. Alternative development pathways that "leapfrog" over the most resource-intensive phases of industrialization offer potential solutions. Mobile telecommunications in Africa, for instance, has delivered connectivity without requiring extensive fixed infrastructure.

Summary

The story of human civilization's relationship with materials reveals a remarkable journey from scarcity to abundance, and now toward the challenge of sustainability. Throughout history, our material innovations have enabled unprecedented advances in human wellbeing—from the first fired pottery that allowed food storage to modern medical devices that extend lives. Yet this progress has created a fundamental tension between our expanding material appetite and the planet's finite capacity to provide resources and absorb wastes. The central paradox of our time is that while we've become dramatically more efficient at using materials—reducing the weight of products, extending their lifespans, and improving recycling—our total material consumption continues to accelerate, driven by population growth, rising affluence, and expanding consumer expectations. Moving toward truly sustainable material systems requires addressing both production and consumption sides of the equation. On the production side, circular economy approaches offer promising pathways to keep materials in use through multiple cycles, while technological innovations in materials science and manufacturing can reduce environmental impacts. On the consumption side, we must confront more challenging questions about sufficiency—how much is enough?—and how wellbeing can be enhanced without endless material accumulation. The regional disparities in material consumption highlight both the legitimate aspirations of developing economies and the responsibility of affluent societies to demonstrate sustainable material pathways. Our material future will be defined not just by what we can make, but by the wisdom with which we choose what to make, how to make it, and how much is truly needed for a good life on a finite planet.

About Author

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Vaclav Smil

Vaclav Smil Ph.D. (Geography, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences of Pennsylvania State University, 1971; RNDr., Charles University, Prague, 1965), is Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of Manitoba. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and in 2010 was named by Foreign Policy as one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers.

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