Napoleon the Great

Napoleon the Great Plot Summary

Introduction

In the spring of 1796, a young general with wild ambition stood before his ragged troops in Italy. "Soldiers," he declared, "you are naked and ill-fed. The government owes you much but can give you nothing. I will lead you into the most fertile plains on earth. Rich provinces and great cities will be in your power." With these words, Napoleon Bonaparte launched one of history's most remarkable journeys from obscurity to imperial glory and ultimate downfall. The story of Napoleon represents a fascinating case study in how individual genius can reshape an entire continent during periods of historical upheaval. How did a minor nobleman from Corsica rise to control most of Europe? What combination of military brilliance, political opportunism, and historical circumstance allowed this transformation? And perhaps most importantly, what does Napoleon's meteoric rise and catastrophic fall teach us about the limits of personal ambition and the nature of sustainable leadership? These questions remain relevant for anyone interested in understanding how exceptional individuals navigate and sometimes redirect the powerful currents of history, whether in politics, business, or social movements.

Chapter 1: Corsican Origins and Revolutionary Opportunity (1769-1799)

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, just one year after France had acquired the island from the Republic of Genoa. This timing proved significant - had he been born earlier, he would have been an Italian subject rather than French. His family belonged to the minor nobility, though they were far from wealthy. Young Napoleon received a military education at schools in mainland France, where he developed both his tactical genius and his outsider's perspective as a Corsican among the French elite. The French Revolution of 1789 created the chaotic conditions that would enable Napoleon's meteoric rise. While many aristocratic officers fled France, Napoleon - then an artillery lieutenant - seized opportunities that opened in the revolutionary armies. His first major breakthrough came in 1793 at the Siege of Toulon, where his innovative artillery tactics helped defeat British forces occupying this strategic port. This victory earned him promotion to brigadier general at just 24 years old. His political survival skills were equally impressive; he narrowly escaped the guillotine during the Reign of Terror and later helped suppress a royalist uprising in Paris in 1795, famously deploying what he called "a whiff of grapeshot" against the mob. The turning point in Napoleon's early career came with his appointment to command the Army of Italy in 1796. Despite his youth and limited experience, he electrified his troops with stirring proclamations and innovative tactics. In a brilliant campaign, he repeatedly defeated larger Austrian forces by moving with unprecedented speed and concentrating his strength at decisive points. His victories at Lodi, Arcole, and Rivoli demonstrated not just military genius but personal courage that inspired fanatical loyalty among his soldiers. Beyond the battlefield, Napoleon showed remarkable political acumen, negotiating directly with foreign powers and sending art treasures back to Paris to enhance his reputation. By 1799, following a campaign in Egypt that enhanced his mystique despite military setbacks, Napoleon had positioned himself as France's most popular general. When he returned to find the Directory government weakened by corruption and military defeats, he joined a conspiracy to seize power. The coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799 established Napoleon as First Consul, effectively ending the revolutionary period and beginning his personal rule. His rise from obscure provincial officer to ruler of France in just six years demonstrated not just military brilliance but political opportunism and an extraordinary ability to seize the moment. The revolutionary upheaval had created openings that Napoleon, with his unique combination of talents, exploited with remarkable effectiveness.

Chapter 2: From First Consul to Emperor (1799-1804)

As First Consul, Napoleon moved swiftly to consolidate power while addressing France's pressing problems. He combined revolutionary principles with authoritarian methods, creating a system that preserved many revolutionary gains while establishing order and stability. His administrative reforms were far-reaching: he reorganized local government through a system of prefects answerable to Paris, established the Bank of France to stabilize the currency, reformed tax collection, and initiated work on his comprehensive legal framework, the Civil Code. These measures brought efficiency to a nation exhausted by a decade of revolutionary turmoil. Napoleon's diplomatic and military achievements further strengthened his position. In 1800, he led the Army of Reserve across the Alps in a daring maneuver that surprised the Austrians. At the Battle of Marengo, despite initial setbacks, he secured a decisive victory that consolidated his political authority. The subsequent Peace of Lunéville with Austria in 1801 and the Treaty of Amiens with Britain in 1802 gave France its first period of general peace since the Revolution began. Napoleon used this breathing space to further strengthen his position, becoming Consul for Life in 1802 with the overwhelming approval of the French people in a plebiscite. The Concordat with Pope Pius VII in 1801 represented one of Napoleon's most significant political achievements. This agreement reconciled the revolutionary state with the Catholic Church, healing one of the deepest wounds of the revolutionary period. While recognizing Catholicism as "the religion of the great majority of the French people," Napoleon maintained state control over church appointments and protected religious minorities. This pragmatic approach typified his governance style - revolutionary in principle but conservative in practice, ideological yet practical. The path from Consul to Emperor accelerated after the resumption of war with Britain in 1803 and the discovery of royalist plots against Napoleon's life. The execution of the Duke of Enghien in March 1804 - seized from neutral territory on flimsy evidence of conspiracy - shocked Europe but demonstrated Napoleon's ruthless determination to secure his position. In May 1804, the Senate proclaimed Napoleon Emperor of the French, and on December 2, he crowned himself in an elaborate ceremony at Notre Dame Cathedral, with Pope Pius VII in attendance. By taking the crown from the Pope's hands and placing it on his own head, Napoleon symbolically declared that his power came not from God or the Church, but from himself and, ostensibly, the French people. This remarkable transformation from revolutionary general to emperor in just five years revealed Napoleon's extraordinary political skills and his understanding of French society's needs after the revolutionary turmoil. He had created a new model of leadership that combined revolutionary legitimacy with traditional authority, meritocratic principles with autocratic power. The revolutionary republic had evolved into a personal empire, with institutions that would influence European governance for generations to come. As Emperor, Napoleon would now attempt to reshape not just France but all of Europe according to his vision.

Chapter 3: European Conquest and Imperial Glory (1805-1809)

The period from 1805 to 1809 marked the apex of Napoleon's military achievements and imperial expansion. When a new coalition formed against him in 1805, Napoleon abandoned his invasion plans against England and marched his Grande Armée with remarkable speed to central Europe. At Ulm in October, he forced an Austrian army to surrender without a major battle. His greatest triumph came at Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, where he decisively defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies in what he would later call "the finest of all my battles." Using a brilliant strategy of deliberate weakness on his right flank to lure the Allies into a trap, Napoleon demonstrated his tactical genius at its height. These victories allowed Napoleon to reshape the European map. He dissolved the thousand-year-old Holy Roman Empire, created the Confederation of the Rhine from German states, and established the Grand Duchy of Warsaw as a Polish satellite state. The following year brought further triumphs as Napoleon crushed the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstedt in October 1806. After the bloody winter campaign against Russia, culminating in the Battle of Friedland in June 1807, Napoleon stood at the zenith of his power. At Tilsit, he met with Tsar Alexander I on a raft in the middle of the Niemen River to negotiate peace terms that effectively divided Europe between their empires. The Napoleonic Empire now extended across most of continental Europe, either through direct rule, family appointments, or client states. Napoleon placed his brothers Joseph, Louis, and Jerome on the thrones of Spain, Holland, and Westphalia respectively. His stepson Eugène de Beauharnais governed Italy as viceroy, while his sister Caroline and her husband Joachim Murat ruled Naples. This "family system" aimed to secure French hegemony while spreading revolutionary reforms throughout Europe. The Continental System, established by the Berlin Decree of 1806, attempted to defeat Britain through economic warfare by closing European ports to British trade. Napoleon's imperial project went beyond mere conquest; he sought to modernize and reform the territories under his control. The Napoleonic Code was exported throughout the empire, abolishing feudal privileges and establishing legal equality. Administrative systems were rationalized, education reformed, and infrastructure improved with new roads, bridges, and public buildings. For Jews and other minorities, French rule often meant emancipation from centuries of discrimination. Napoleon's Europe was to be unified not just by force but by common laws, institutions, and principles derived from the French Revolution but implemented through imperial authority. However, resistance to French domination was growing. In Spain, Napoleon's decision to depose the Bourbon monarchy and place his brother Joseph on the throne in 1808 triggered a fierce guerrilla war that would drain French resources for years. The Spanish uprising inspired Austria to launch a new war in 1809, forcing Napoleon to rush back from Spain to meet this threat. Though he captured Vienna and defeated the Austrians at Wagram in July 1809, the campaign revealed growing problems in the French military system. Casualties were higher, victories less decisive, and Napoleon's marshals showed less initiative when operating independently. The seeds of future disaster were being sown even as the Empire reached its greatest territorial extent.

Chapter 4: Overreach and Resistance: The Russian Campaign (1810-1812)

By 1810, Napoleon's empire had reached its greatest extent, but the foundations were beginning to crack. The Continental System, his grand economic strategy against Britain, was proving increasingly counterproductive. While causing significant distress to British trade, it also devastated the economies of France's allies and subject states, generating widespread smuggling and resentment. Russia, ostensibly France's ally since Tilsit, found the economic restrictions particularly damaging to its export-based economy. Tsar Alexander I gradually resumed trade with Britain and refused to enforce the blockade, creating a fundamental conflict with Napoleon's European system. Napoleon's personal life underwent significant changes during this period. Having divorced Josephine in December 1809 due to her inability to provide an heir, he married the young Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria in April 1810. This marriage to a Habsburg princess represented Napoleon's attempt to legitimize his dynasty among Europe's royal families. His joy was complete when Marie Louise gave birth to a son in March 1811, immediately styled as the King of Rome. At 42, Napoleon finally had the heir he desperately wanted to secure his dynasty. Yet even this personal triumph contained the seeds of future problems, as it further committed him to maintaining his vast empire for his son's inheritance. The deteriorating relationship with Russia set the stage for Napoleon's most ambitious and ultimately disastrous campaign. Throughout 1811 and early 1812, both sides prepared for war while maintaining diplomatic facades. Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had seen since antiquity - over 600,000 men from across his empire and allied states. This multinational force included French, Italians, Germans, Poles, and even reluctant contingents from Prussia and Austria. The sheer scale of the force reflected Napoleon's confidence in achieving a swift, decisive victory that would force Alexander back into the Continental System. The Russian campaign began on June 24, 1812, when Napoleon's forces crossed the Niemen River. From the outset, the campaign defied Napoleon's expectations. The Russian armies under Barclay de Tolly and Bagration retreated deep into their vast territory rather than offering the decisive battle Napoleon sought. This strategy, whether deliberate or born of necessity, proved devastatingly effective. As the French advanced through Lithuania and into Russia proper, they faced increasing logistical challenges. The enormous army quickly outran its supply lines, and the scorched earth policy adopted by the retreating Russians left little for the invaders to requisition. Disease, particularly dysentery and typhus, began decimating the ranks before any major battle had been fought. When the Russians finally stood and fought at Borodino on September 7, the resulting battle was among the bloodiest of the Napoleonic Wars, with combined casualties approaching 80,000 men in a single day. Though technically victorious, Napoleon failed to destroy the Russian army, which retreated in good order. On September 14, he entered Moscow only to find the city largely abandoned. Within hours, fires broke out across the capital - likely set by Russian authorities - that ultimately destroyed two-thirds of the city. Napoleon found himself in possession of a charred, empty prize with winter approaching and no sign that Alexander would negotiate. After five critical weeks of waiting in vain for peace overtures, Napoleon ordered a retreat that would become one of history's most catastrophic military disasters. The Russian campaign revealed the fundamental limitations of Napoleon's system. His military genius, which had conquered most of Europe, proved inadequate against Russia's vast spaces, harsh climate, and the determination of its people and leadership. The campaign destroyed not just his Grande Armée but the aura of invincibility that had sustained his empire. As news of the catastrophe spread across Europe, subject peoples and conquered nations began to contemplate resistance, while Prussia and Austria reconsidered their forced alliances with France. The tide had turned decisively against the Emperor, though the final reckoning would take another two years to unfold.

Chapter 5: Downfall, Exile and Historical Impact (1813-1821)

The aftermath of the Russian disaster saw Napoleon fighting desperately to preserve his empire against a growing coalition of enemies. In an extraordinary display of energy and organizational skill, he raised new armies in early 1813, largely composed of young conscripts. Despite winning several tactical victories in the spring campaign in Germany, Napoleon faced overwhelming numbers as Prussia joined Russia in open rebellion and Austria eventually abandoned its alliance with France. The decisive Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 - the "Battle of Nations" - saw Napoleon defeated by the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, forcing him to retreat to France. By early 1814, allied armies invaded France from multiple directions. Napoleon conducted a brilliant defensive campaign with limited resources, displaying tactical genius in victories at Champaubert, Montmirail, and Montereau. However, when the allies captured Paris in March 1814, political support for the Emperor collapsed. His marshals refused to continue fighting, and Napoleon was forced to abdicate on April 6, 1814. The allies exiled him to the Mediterranean island of Elba, while restoring the Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII. Napoleon was granted sovereignty over Elba, a small pension, and allowed to retain his imperial title, though only over his tiny island domain. Napoleon's first exile proved remarkably brief. After less than a year on Elba, he escaped on February 26, 1815, landing in southern France with a small force of loyal guardsmen. In one of history's most remarkable political comebacks, troops sent to arrest him instead rallied to his cause with cries of "Vive l'Empereur!" Napoleon marched triumphantly to Paris as Louis XVIII fled, reclaiming power without firing a shot in what became known as the "Flight of the Eagle." During this period known as the Hundred Days, Napoleon attempted to present himself as a constitutional monarch, but the European powers declared him an outlaw and rapidly mobilized their armies. The final showdown came near the Belgian village of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Napoleon moved quickly to attack the Anglo-Allied army under Wellington before Prussian forces under Blücher could join them. Despite initial success, the battle turned against the French when Prussian units arrived on the battlefield. The defeat was total, and Napoleon's last army disintegrated. After a brief return to Paris, he abdicated for the second time and surrendered to British authorities, who exiled him to the remote South Atlantic island of St. Helena. There, under close guard, he spent his remaining years dictating his memoirs and shaping his historical legacy before dying on May 5, 1821, at the age of 51. Napoleon's impact on history extended far beyond his military campaigns. His legal reforms, particularly the Civil Code, influenced legal systems worldwide and continue to shape jurisprudence today. His administrative innovations - from the prefectural system to the Banque de France and the lycée educational system - created institutions that have endured for over two centuries. By spreading revolutionary principles across Europe while simultaneously containing their most radical expressions, Napoleon accelerated the decline of feudalism and absolute monarchy while establishing models of modern state administration. His campaigns stimulated nationalist reactions that would reshape the European map in the following century. Perhaps most significantly, Napoleon embodied the principle that ability, not birth, should determine one's station in life. His famous declaration that "every soldier carries in his knapsack the marshal's baton" represented a meritocratic ideal that challenged traditional aristocratic privilege. Though his own rule became increasingly autocratic, this meritocratic legacy inspired generations of ambitious individuals from modest backgrounds. Napoleon thus remains a contradictory figure - a revolutionary who became an emperor, a champion of liberty who established authoritarian rule, a military genius whose ambitions led to his downfall. His complex legacy continues to fascinate and divide historians, representing both the transformative potential and the dangerous seductions of extraordinary individual power in times of historical upheaval.

Summary

The trajectory of Napoleon Bonaparte from provincial outsider to master of Europe reveals the dynamic interplay between individual genius and historical circumstance that occasionally produces world-changing outcomes. Throughout his remarkable career, Napoleon navigated the fundamental tension between revolutionary principles and authoritarian methods, between meritocratic ideals and dynastic ambitions. His story demonstrates how revolutionary upheaval creates openings for exceptional individuals to reshape political systems, while also showing the ultimate limitations of power built primarily on military success and personal charisma. The Napoleonic era represents a pivotal moment when the forces unleashed by the French Revolution were simultaneously extended across Europe and channeled into more controlled, institutionalized forms. For contemporary leaders and citizens, Napoleon's rise and fall offers several enduring lessons. First, institutional innovation often outlasts military conquest - Napoleon's administrative, legal, and educational reforms proved more durable than his battlefield victories. Second, even the most brilliant strategic mind cannot overcome the power of aroused national sentiment, as demonstrated by the Spanish resistance and Russian campaign. Finally, Napoleon's career illustrates how charismatic leadership can provide stability and direction in times of chaos, but also how such leadership can evolve toward personalized power that becomes increasingly difficult to sustain. In our own era of rapid technological and social change, Napoleon reminds us that periods of disruption create opportunities for transformative leadership - both constructive and destructive - and that the institutions we build may ultimately prove more significant than the battles we win.

About Author

Loading...

Andrew Roberts

Dr Andrew Roberts, who was born in 1963, took a first class honours degree in Modern History at Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge, from where he is an honorary senior scholar and a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). He has written or edited twelve books, and appears regularly on radio and television around the world. Based in New York, he is an accomplished public speaker, and is represented by HarperCollins Speakers’ Bureau (See Speaking Engagements and Speaking Testimonials). He has recently lectured at Yale, Princeton and Stanford Universities and at the US Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Read more