Rise of the Rocket Girls

Rise of the Rocket Girls Plot Summary

Introduction

In the shadowy control room of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on January 31, 1958, a young woman with pencil in hand meticulously plotted trajectory calculations while the renowned physicist Richard Feynman anxiously peered over her shoulder. The fate of America's first satellite, Explorer 1, rested on her mathematical precision. This pivotal moment represents just one instance where women, known initially as "computers," played essential yet largely unrecognized roles in America's quest to conquer space. Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, these remarkable women transformed from human calculators to engineers and scientists, breaking gender barriers in a predominantly male field. Their story encompasses not only America's technological triumph in space exploration but also illuminates the changing landscape of women in the workforce during a transformative era. These pioneers navigated both complex mathematical equations and the equally challenging terrain of societal expectations, often balancing demanding careers with family responsibilities. Their contributions span from early rocket development to iconic missions like Voyager, demonstrating how talent and determination can overcome entrenched systems of exclusion when given the opportunity to flourish.

Chapter 1: 1940s: Creating the Human Computer Division

In the early 1940s, as World War II reshaped America's scientific landscape, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California began taking its first steps toward becoming a powerhouse in rocket development. What started as an experimental site nicknamed "the Suicide Squad" due to dangerous rocket testing evolved into a formal research facility. During this formative period, Barbara "Barby" Canright became the first female computer hired at JPL, breaking ground for women in aerospace. These early computers were not electronic devices but human beings performing complex mathematical calculations by hand. With pencil, paper, and mechanical calculators, they translated raw experimental data into meaningful results. Barby and subsequently hired women like Macie Roberts and Barbara Lewis worked tirelessly on calculating trajectories, fuel consumption rates, and thrust capabilities for early rocket designs such as JATO (Jet-Assisted Take Off) units – essential technology that helped heavy bombers launch from short runways during wartime operations. The wartime effort greatly accelerated rocket development, creating unprecedented opportunities for women in technical fields. While men were fighting overseas, women stepped into roles previously deemed unsuitable for them. The calculations these women performed were mission-critical; a single error could result in catastrophic rocket failures or inaccurate flight paths. Their precision and reliability earned them respect, though rarely equal recognition or compensation compared to their male counterparts. By the late 1940s, an interesting cultural shift occurred within JPL's computing department. When Macie Roberts was promoted to supervisor, she made a conscious decision that would shape the department for decades: she would hire only women. Her reasoning combined practical management considerations with shrewd understanding of gender dynamics – she believed women would collaborate more effectively without male ego in the mix, and that men might struggle to accept female leadership. This created a unique sanctuary of female technical expertise that would persist for generations. The work these women performed laid essential groundwork for America's space program. They calculated complex equations for propellant mixtures, analyzed aerodynamic data, and developed mathematical models that would later prove crucial for space flight. Their contributions helped transform theoretical rocketry into practical applications, bridging the gap between scientific concepts and working technology that would eventually reach beyond Earth's atmosphere. As the decade closed, these pioneering women had firmly established their value at JPL, though their journey was just beginning. The computing department had become a close-knit sisterhood, united by their shared passion for mathematics and the unique challenges of being women in a male-dominated field. Their technical expertise would soon be tested by even greater challenges as the Cold War space race loomed on the horizon.

Chapter 2: Cold War Competition and Technological Breakthrough

The dawn of the 1950s ushered in an intense period of technological rivalry between the United States and Soviet Union. This Cold War competition transformed JPL's mission from primarily military applications toward space exploration. As international tensions escalated, the women computers found their mathematical skills increasingly vital to national security and scientific advancement. During this period, JPL's workforce expanded significantly, with the annual budget doubling from $5 million to $11 million between 1950 and 1953. The computing division grew accordingly, with supervisor Macie Roberts continuing her policy of hiring exclusively women. This era saw the recruitment of pioneering women like Helen Ling, who would later become a supervisor herself, and Janez Lawson, the first African American hired for a professional position at JPL. These women brought diverse backgrounds and exceptional mathematical talents to increasingly complex projects. The technological focus during this period centered on developing more sophisticated missile systems. The women computers worked extensively on the Corporal missile, America's first operational surface-to-surface ballistic missile, and later the more advanced Sergeant missile system. Their calculations proved essential for resolving critical engineering challenges, such as determining optimal propellant mixtures and analyzing flight stability patterns. When rockets failed—which happened frequently in these experimental years—the computers meticulously traced through their calculations to identify potential sources of error. A significant breakthrough came through their work on solid propellants. Jack Parsons, one of JPL's founding engineers, developed an innovative asphalt-based propellant that the computers carefully analyzed for performance characteristics. These women calculated specific impulse, thrust vectors, and combustion rates, transforming raw experimental data into usable engineering specifications. Their work on propellant chemistry and performance laid crucial groundwork for future space exploration vehicles. The period also saw important social developments within the computing team. Working in close quarters on classified projects fostered deep bonds among the women. They celebrated birthdays together, held potluck dinners, and supported each other through life's challenges—from marriages to pregnancies to returning to work after having children. This professional sisterhood became a crucial support system, particularly important during an era when working mothers faced significant societal judgment. By the late 1950s, the women computers had established themselves as indispensable contributors to America's aerospace advancement. Their mathematical precision helped transform theoretical concepts into functioning technology, even as they navigated the complex terrain of being professional women in a male-dominated field. They stood at the precipice of the space age, their calculators and slide rules ready for humanity's greatest technological adventure yet.

Chapter 3: Breaking Barriers: From Computers to Engineers

The late 1950s through the early 1960s marked a transformative period for women at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. As computing technology evolved, so did the roles of the women who had once been known simply as "computers." This era witnessed their gradual transition from mathematical support staff to recognized engineers and programmers—a shift that didn't come easily or automatically. The arrival of early electronic computers like the IBM 701, nicknamed the "Defense Calculator," presented both challenges and opportunities. These room-sized machines were temperamental, frequently overheating and requiring constant maintenance. Many male engineers initially distrusted the results from these electronic behemoths, preferring calculations done by human computers. This skepticism inadvertently benefited the women, who became intermediaries between the old and new methods of computation, mastering the programming languages necessary to communicate with these machines. Pioneering women like Barbara Paulson (formerly Lewis) and Helen Ling demonstrated remarkable adaptability during this transition. When IBM introduced FORTRAN (Formula Translation) in the late 1950s, they quickly learned this new programming language. Their work involved translating complex mathematical equations into punch cards, feeding them into compilers, and interpreting the results. This required not just mathematical skill but a new kind of logical thinking that would later be recognized as computer programming. Socially, these women continued to navigate complex territory. Many married and had children during this period, forcing them to balance professional demands with domestic responsibilities in an era without formal maternity leave policies. When Barbara Paulson became pregnant, she was immediately terminated from her position—despite years of valuable service—highlighting the persistent institutional barriers women faced. Many would return to JPL after having children, creating informal support networks and work schedules that accommodated family responsibilities. The period also saw racial integration within the computing division. When Janez Lawson was hired in 1952, she became the first African American in a professional role at JPL. Her hiring was not taken lightly, with management carefully considering how staff would react. Under Macie Roberts' leadership, the computing division welcomed Lawson as an equal colleague, though she faced longer commutes and different social circumstances than her white counterparts due to segregated housing patterns in Southern California. By the early 1960s, these women were no longer just performing calculations assigned by male engineers—they were actively participating in mission planning, trajectory design, and systems analysis. Though the title "engineer" remained elusive for most, their responsibilities increasingly matched those of their male engineering colleagues. Their unique positioning at the intersection of traditional mathematics and emerging computer science allowed them to become NASA's first software engineers, creating a lasting legacy that would extend far beyond their initial roles as human computers.

Chapter 4: The Space Race and Critical Calculations

October 4, 1957, marked a turning point in human history when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite. This technological achievement sent shockwaves through American society and dramatically accelerated the space race. For the women at JPL, this moment transformed their work from important to absolutely critical for national prestige and security. The pressure to respond to Sputnik was immense. While the nation reeled from this perceived technological defeat, JPL Director William Pickering, rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and their teams worked frantically to prepare America's answer. Barbara Paulson and Margie Behrens were among the women who spent the night of January 31, 1958, in JPL's control room performing real-time calculations as Explorer 1—America's first satellite—raced toward orbit. When confirmation finally came that Explorer 1 had successfully entered orbit, the women's precise calculations had proven as vital as any rocket component. Following this success, the computing workload expanded exponentially. The women calculated trajectories not just for Earth-orbiting satellites but for lunar and planetary missions. Each trajectory required consideration of gravitational fields, atmospheric resistance, velocity, and countless other variables—all computed largely by hand or with mechanical calculators. A single miscalculation could send a multimillion-dollar spacecraft off course or crashing back to Earth. The women's work on missions like Pioneer, which aimed to reach the moon, required unprecedented mathematical precision. This period also saw significant technological advancement in how the women performed their work. IBM electronic computers became more reliable, and the women increasingly split their time between traditional hand calculations and early computer programming. Their programming expertise grew in parallel with the technology itself. Helen Ling and others became proficient in early programming languages, translating complex mathematical formulas into computer code through punch cards and paper tape. The women developed innovative tracking systems that became essential to space exploration. Susan Finley contributed significantly to the Microlock tracking system, which could detect faint signals from distant spacecraft. This technology proved crucial for maintaining contact with spacecraft as they ventured farther from Earth. Meanwhile, the creation of NASA's Deep Space Network (DSN)—a system of large antenna dishes positioned around the globe to maintain constant communication with spacecraft—relied heavily on calculations and programs developed by these women. By the early 1960s, as Presidents Kennedy and Johnson committed America to reaching the moon before the decade's end, the women's work had expanded to include supporting both unmanned exploratory missions and the manned space program. Their calculations helped determine safe landing sites on the lunar surface, analyzed potential hazards, and plotted optimal trajectories for Apollo missions. Though they remained behind the scenes, their mathematical precision was laying the groundwork for humanity's greatest adventure.

Chapter 5: From Explorer to Apollo: Defining America's Space Success

The period from 1962 to 1969 represents the golden age of American space exploration, culminating in the historic Apollo 11 moon landing. For the women at JPL, these years brought unprecedented challenges, remarkable achievements, and gradual professional recognition as they contributed to humanity's greatest adventure. Following the success of Explorer, JPL focused on two parallel tracks: lunar missions and planetary exploration. The women computers-turned-programmers divided their efforts accordingly. The Ranger program, designed to crash-land on the moon while transmitting photographs during descent, suffered several frustrating failures before Ranger 7 finally succeeded in 1964. Barbara Paulson and her colleagues spent thousands of hours debugging software and recalculating trajectories after each failure, demonstrating remarkable persistence. Their work on the subsequent Surveyor program, which achieved the first soft lunar landing in 1966, provided critical data on the moon's surface that would later guide Apollo landing sites. Simultaneously, another team including Helen Ling and Margie Behrens worked on the Mariner program targeting Venus and Mars. Their calculations guided Mariner 2 to Venus in December 1962, making it the first successful planetary encounter and America's first clear victory in the space race. When Mariner 4 reached Mars in 1965, the women helped process the first close-up images of another planet, revealing a cratered, seemingly lifeless world that contradicted popular conceptions of Mars as potentially inhabited. The technological leap during this period was staggering. The women transitioned from mechanical calculators to increasingly sophisticated electronic computers. They mastered new programming languages and developed innovative software for spacecraft navigation and control. Sue Finley wrote programs that enhanced the Deep Space Network's capabilities, allowing it to detect incredibly faint signals from distant spacecraft. Their programming skills became increasingly vital as missions grew more complex and distant. While making these technical contributions, the women also continued navigating workplace dynamics and societal expectations. Many balanced demanding careers with family responsibilities in an era before formal support systems existed for working mothers. Despite their growing technical expertise, they still faced institutional barriers. When Barbara Paulson became pregnant, she was immediately terminated from her position. She would later return, but the incident highlighted the precarious professional position women occupied regardless of their technical abilities. By July 1969, as Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the moon, the women at JPL could take pride in their contributions to this historic achievement. Though they worked primarily on unmanned missions, their work on lunar mapping, communications technology, and propulsion systems had directly enabled Apollo's success. The Apollo program represented the culmination of nearly two decades of mathematical and programming expertise developed by these women, whose calculations had helped humanity reach beyond Earth.

Chapter 6: Digital Revolution: Adapting to New Computing Power

The 1970s and early 1980s brought a seismic shift in computing technology that fundamentally transformed how space missions were designed and executed. For the women who had started as human computers at JPL, this digital revolution required continuous adaptation and learning, even as it created new opportunities for recognition and advancement. The arrival of microprocessors and integrated circuits dramatically changed computing capabilities. What once required room-sized machines could now be accomplished on increasingly compact computers. The development of the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, containing 2,300 transistors in a tiny silicon wafer, marked the beginning of this transformation. By the late 1970s, personal computers were becoming reality, and JPL gradually incorporated this technology throughout its operations. Helen Ling, Barbara Paulson, and Sue Finley embraced these changes, learning new programming languages and adapting their skills to more powerful machines. This period saw the women's roles evolve significantly. No longer called "computers," many now held titles like engineer, programmer, or mission specialist. Their responsibilities expanded beyond calculations to mission design, systems engineering, and project management. Sylvia Miller (formerly Lundy) became a mission design manager for planetary exploration, while others took leadership roles in software development for deep space missions. Though still outnumbered by men, their technical expertise and institutional knowledge made them increasingly influential. The ambitious Voyager missions to the outer planets showcased their adaptability and ingenuity. Launched in 1977, these twin spacecraft required unprecedented programming sophistication for their "Grand Tour" of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Sylvia Miller worked on trajectory designs using gravity-assist maneuvers, while Sue Finley contributed to the Deep Space Network communications that would maintain contact with the spacecraft across billions of miles. When Voyager 1 encountered Jupiter in 1979, revealing its swirling storms and volcanic moons in stunning detail, the women's programming expertise helped process and interpret the flood of data. This era also brought painful lessons about space exploration's inherent risks. The women contributed to the Viking missions to Mars, which successfully landed two spacecraft on the red planet in 1976 but found no definitive evidence of life. They experienced the heartbreak of failed missions like the Mars Observer, which disappeared just before reaching Mars in 1993 after years of preparation. The Challenger disaster in 1986 affected them deeply, even though they worked primarily on unmanned missions, reminding everyone of space exploration's dangers. By the 1980s, as personal computers appeared on desktops throughout JPL, the division between "human computers" and electronic ones had disappeared completely. Helen Ling, before her retirement in 1994, ensured this legacy would continue by hiring and mentoring a new generation of women engineers. Her strategic hiring policies helped maintain women's presence in technical roles even as computing technology made the original "computer" position obsolete. The pioneering women had successfully navigated the transition from pencil-and-paper calculations to sophisticated software engineering, their adaptability ensuring their continued relevance in a rapidly evolving field.

Chapter 7: Legacy of the Human Computers in Space Exploration

From the 1990s through the present day, the ripple effects of the women pioneers at NASA continue to shape space exploration in profound ways. Though most of the original human computers have retired, their technical innovations, institutional influence, and breaking of gender barriers created lasting impacts that extend far beyond their individual careers. The Mars exploration program stands as perhaps their most visible legacy. Sylvia Miller's work as a Mars program manager in the 1990s helped establish the framework for what became a multi-decade exploration strategy. The landing of the Sojourner rover in 1997, followed by Spirit and Opportunity in 2004 and Curiosity in 2012, built directly upon trajectory calculations, landing systems, and communications protocols developed by the women pioneers. Sue Finley, remarkably, continued working at JPL well into the 21st century, becoming NASA's longest-serving woman with contributions spanning from Explorer 1 to the Juno mission to Jupiter. Their programming innovations have become embedded in NASA's operational DNA. The software architecture developed for missions like Voyager and Galileo established precedents that continue to influence modern spacecraft design. When Voyager 1 entered interstellar space in 2012—the first human-made object to leave our solar system—it carried with it programming originally written by these women decades earlier. The Deep Space Network, which Sue Finley helped enhance through innovative programming, remains the critical communications link for all deep space missions, its core architecture reflecting her early work. Perhaps most significantly, these pioneers transformed the gender landscape of space exploration. Helen Ling's strategic hiring and mentoring of women engineers throughout her career created a pipeline of female talent that helped JPL maintain higher percentages of women in technical roles than other NASA centers. The proportion of female engineers at JPL increased from 9 percent in 1984 to 15 percent in 1994, with continued growth thereafter. This stands in contrast to troubling trends elsewhere—while 37 percent of computer science graduates were women in 1984, that number fell to just 18 percent by the early 2000s. Their personal stories of balancing demanding careers with family responsibilities, navigating workplace discrimination, and supporting each other through professional challenges have become powerful models for subsequent generations. Many maintained decades-long friendships extending well beyond their professional careers, creating a supportive community that nurtured both technical excellence and personal growth. Their example demonstrated that women could excel in highly technical fields while maintaining full personal lives—a powerful counter-narrative to restrictive gender expectations. Today, as humanity contemplates missions to Mars and beyond, the legacy of these women remains alive in the mathematical foundations of orbital mechanics, the computer programs guiding spacecraft across the solar system, and the institutional cultures they helped shape. From Barbara Canright's hand calculations for early rockets to Sue Finley's software for interplanetary spacecraft, their work spans the entire history of space exploration—a testament to their adaptability, persistence, and brilliance in expanding humanity's reach beyond Earth.

Summary

Throughout this remarkable journey from human calculators to space exploration pioneers, a central tension emerges: the contrast between these women's extraordinary technical contributions and their persistent struggle for recognition and equality. Despite limited opportunities and institutional barriers, they transformed themselves from mathematical support staff into engineers, programmers, and mission designers who shaped America's exploration of the solar system. Their story demonstrates how talent and dedication can overcome systemic obstacles when supported by even modest institutional openings and strong peer networks. The legacy of these women offers vital lessons for addressing modern technological challenges. First, diversity in technical teams produces tangible benefits—the women computers' unique perspective and collaborative approach to problem-solving directly contributed to NASA's greatest successes. Second, informal mentorship and support networks are powerful tools for institutional change—Helen Ling's strategic hiring and mentoring of women engineers created a pipeline that maintained female representation even as computing technology evolved. Finally, true innovation requires not just technical brilliance but adaptability and persistence—qualities these women demonstrated across decades as they navigated both technological revolutions and shifting social expectations. Their journey reminds us that exploration, whether of space or human potential, requires us to question limitations, support diverse talent, and recognize that breakthrough achievements often come from unexpected sources.

About Author

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Nathalia Holt

Nathalia Holt, Ph.D. is the New York Times bestselling author of Rise of the Rocket Girls, The Queens of Animation, Wise Gals, and Cured. She had written for numerous publications including The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times, The Atlantic, Slate, Popular Science, PBS, and Time. She lives with her husband and their two daughters in Pacific Grove, CA.

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