The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee

The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee Plot Summary

Introduction

On a frigid December morning in 1890, the frozen air at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota, was shattered by gunfire as U.S. Cavalry soldiers opened fire on a group of Lakota Sioux. When the smoke cleared, more than 150 Native Americans lay dead in the snow, including women and children. For generations, this massacre symbolized the supposed "end" of Native America—a final, brutal punctuation mark on centuries of colonization and displacement. But the true story of Indigenous peoples in America since Wounded Knee is not one of vanishing, but of extraordinary resilience, adaptation, and revival. Throughout the tumultuous decades following Wounded Knee, Native Americans faced seemingly insurmountable challenges: the devastating boarding school system that tore children from families, government policies designed to dismantle tribal sovereignty, forced relocation, and persistent poverty. Yet through these trials, Indigenous communities maintained their cultural identities, fought for their rights through legal and political channels, served with distinction in America's military conflicts, and gradually rebuilt tribal governance structures. This remarkable journey reveals not just what was done to Native peoples, but what they themselves accomplished—creating new paths forward while maintaining essential connections to ancestral traditions and homelands.

Chapter 1: Wounded Knee: The Lowest Point (1890-1900)

The massacre at Wounded Knee occurred during a period of profound desperation for the Lakota people. By 1890, the once-vast buffalo herds that sustained Plains tribes had been decimated, traditional territories had been drastically reduced through a series of coercive treaties, and the Ghost Dance spiritual movement had emerged as a response to these devastating changes. When soldiers of the 7th Cavalry surrounded Chief Big Foot's band at Wounded Knee Creek on December 28, 1890, tensions were already at a breaking point. What followed was horrific. After attempting to disarm the Lakota, a scuffle broke out. The military opened fire with rifles and Hotchkiss guns, killing men, women, and children indiscriminately. Survivors fled into the surrounding countryside, pursued by soldiers who shot them down. The frozen bodies were later buried in a mass grave. Among the dead was Chief Big Foot, who had been traveling to Pine Ridge Reservation seeking sanctuary. The massacre represented not just a military action but the culmination of decades of policies designed to break Native resistance and culture. In the immediate aftermath, American society largely celebrated the massacre. L. Frank Baum, later famous as the author of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, wrote in an editorial: "The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth." This sentiment reflected the prevailing view that Native peoples represented an obstacle to American progress that needed to be eliminated or completely assimilated. The decade following Wounded Knee saw the acceleration of policies designed to eradicate tribal identity. The reservation system confined Native peoples to increasingly smaller territories, while the government intensified efforts to suppress traditional ceremonies, languages, and governance structures. The Bureau of Indian Affairs expanded its control over nearly every aspect of Native life, from education to healthcare to land management. Simultaneously, the allotment policy, formalized in the 1887 Dawes Act, divided communal tribal lands into individual parcels, ultimately transferring millions of acres from Native to white ownership. Despite these overwhelming pressures, Native communities refused to disappear. Even as the U.S. government and popular culture promoted the narrative of the "vanishing Indian," tribes maintained their cultural practices, often conducting ceremonies in secret to avoid punishment. Extended family networks preserved traditional knowledge, and tribal leaders continued to advocate for their people's rights, laying groundwork for future resistance. The very persistence of Native communities through this period represents an extraordinary act of resilience in the face of policies explicitly designed to eliminate them as distinct peoples. The turn of the century would bring new challenges, but also new opportunities for Native Americans to assert their rights and identities. The survival of tribal communities through what many historians consider the lowest point of Native American history demonstrates that, contrary to popular belief, the story of Indigenous peoples did not end at Wounded Knee—it was merely entering a new chapter.

Chapter 2: Cultural Suppression and Resistance (1900-1934)

The early twentieth century saw the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) consolidate unprecedented control over Native American communities. By 1900, the Bureau's payroll had expanded from just over 100 employees in the 1850s to nearly 2,000, creating a vast bureaucracy that regulated virtually every aspect of reservation life. Indian agents, appointed by the government rather than chosen by tribes, wielded enormous power—distributing rations, enforcing regulations, hiring reservation police, and even determining who could leave reservation boundaries. This period witnessed the intensification of cultural suppression through the notorious boarding school system. Captain Richard Henry Pratt's philosophy of "Kill the Indian, save the man" guided these institutions, which forcibly removed Native children from their families and communities. At schools like Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, children had their hair cut, were forbidden to speak their languages, and were subjected to military-style discipline and Christian indoctrination. The physical and psychological trauma inflicted by these schools would echo through generations. Luther Standing Bear, among the first students at Carlisle, recalled the experience: "The 'civilizing' process started with clothes... Our accustomed dress was taken and replaced with clothing that felt cumbersome and awkward." Simultaneously, the government intensified its assault on tribal land holdings through allotment. The 1887 Dawes Act had initiated the process of dividing communal tribal lands into individual parcels, but the early 1900s saw this policy accelerated through amendments like the 1906 Burke Act, which made it easier for Indians deemed "competent" to sell their allotments. The results were catastrophic—between 1887 and 1934, Indian landholdings plummeted from 138 million acres to just 48 million acres, with the "surplus" lands opened to white settlement. This massive transfer of wealth crippled tribal economies and created a patchwork of ownership on reservations that persists today. Despite these overwhelming pressures, Native communities demonstrated remarkable resilience and strategic adaptation. The Red Lake Ojibwe in Minnesota successfully resisted allotment by negotiating to cede some lands while maintaining their core territory as communal property. The Menominee in Wisconsin protected their forests through sustainable management practices. In Oklahoma, the Five Civilized Tribes, though subjected to the Curtis Act's dissolution of their governments, adapted by creating new civic institutions and businesses. Throughout Indian Country, traditional ceremonies continued in secret, languages were preserved within families, and cultural knowledge was passed to new generations. By the late 1920s, the failures of federal Indian policy had become increasingly apparent. The 1928 Meriam Report, a comprehensive government-commissioned study, documented the devastating conditions on reservations: widespread poverty, inadequate healthcare, substandard education, and the harmful effects of allotment. This influential report would help set the stage for a significant shift in federal policy in the years to come, as Native communities positioned themselves to reclaim aspects of self-determination that had been systematically stripped away.

Chapter 3: War Service and Citizenship (1934-1945)

World War II marked a pivotal moment in Native American history, as thousands of Indigenous men and women served in all branches of the armed forces. Approximately 44,000 Native Americans joined the military—representing nearly one-third of all able-bodied Native American men aged 18 to 50. This massive mobilization occurred despite the fact that many Native Americans had only recently gained U.S. citizenship through the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, and some still faced discrimination in voting rights and other areas of civic life. Native Americans served with remarkable distinction across all theaters of war. The Navajo Code Talkers became legendary for developing an unbreakable communications system based on their language, transmitting crucial messages during Pacific campaigns including Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Ira Hayes, a Pima Indian, was immortalized as one of the six Marines who raised the American flag on Iwo Jima. By war's end, Native servicemembers had earned at least 71 Air Medals, 51 Silver Stars, 47 Bronze Stars, and 34 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Jack Montgomery, a Cherokee from Oklahoma, and Ernest Childers, a Creek, both received the Medal of Honor for their heroism in combat. While Native Americans fought fascism abroad, they continued to face discrimination and economic hardship at home. Many reservation communities experienced severe shortages of basic necessities as rationing compounded existing poverty. Native workers migrated to urban centers for defense industry jobs, initiating a significant demographic shift that would accelerate in the postwar years. On reservations, the war years saw increased resource extraction as the government sought minerals, timber, and agricultural products for the war effort, often with minimal compensation to tribes. The contradiction between fighting for democracy overseas while facing discrimination at home was not lost on Native communities. In 1944, Native veterans and activists formed the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), the first truly national intertribal organization, to advocate for Indian rights and protect tribal sovereignty. The NCAI's founding reflected growing political sophistication among Native leaders and their determination to ensure that wartime service would translate into postwar recognition and rights. The war experience transformed many Native individuals and communities. Military service exposed Native people to the wider world, provided technical training and education benefits, and created new expectations for the future. Many veterans returned with enhanced leadership skills and a determination to improve conditions in their communities. The shared experience of military service also strengthened pan-Indian identity, as Native people from diverse tribes formed bonds that transcended traditional boundaries. As the war drew to a close, Native Americans stood at a crossroads. Their massive contribution to the war effort had demonstrated their patriotism and capabilities beyond question. Yet powerful interests were already positioning to roll back the limited gains of the Indian Reorganization Act era and seize remaining tribal resources. The question remained whether America would honor its obligations to its first citizens or return to policies of termination and assimilation. For Native communities, the struggle for recognition, rights, and resources would continue long after the guns of World War II fell silent.

Chapter 4: From Termination to Self-Determination (1945-1975)

The post-war era brought dramatic changes to Native American communities as federal policy shifted abruptly from the relative support of the Indian Reorganization Act to the harsh assimilationist approach known as "termination." In 1953, Congress passed House Concurrent Resolution 108, which aimed to "terminate" the federal government's trust relationship with tribes, effectively abolishing their special status and protections. This policy targeted tribes deemed "ready" for termination based on dubious criteria of economic self-sufficiency. Between 1954 and 1962, over 100 tribes were terminated, including the Menominee of Wisconsin and the Klamath of Oregon, resulting in the loss of federal services, tax exemptions, and in many cases, tribal lands. Alongside termination came the relocation program, which encouraged Native Americans to leave reservations for urban areas. The Bureau of Indian Affairs established offices in cities like Chicago, Denver, Los Angeles, and Seattle to assist relocatees with housing and employment. While presented as voluntary, economic pressures and limited reservation opportunities made relocation the only viable option for many. By 1970, nearly half of all Native Americans lived in urban areas, compared to just 13% in 1950. This massive demographic shift created new challenges as relocatees faced discrimination, cultural isolation, and the struggle to maintain tribal connections while adapting to urban life. The consequences of termination were devastating. The Menominee, who had operated a successful timber enterprise for generations, saw their tribal status converted to a county government and their communal assets transferred to a private corporation. Within a decade, the tribe faced economic collapse, with unemployment reaching 90% and their hospital and schools forced to close. Similar stories played out across Indian Country as terminated tribes lost access to healthcare, education, and other services guaranteed by treaties. The relocation program, while promising economic opportunity, often led to isolation and poverty in unfamiliar urban environments where Native Americans faced discrimination in housing and employment. These twin policies of termination and relocation inadvertently created the conditions for a new era of Indigenous activism. Urban Indian communities formed intertribal organizations that transcended traditional tribal boundaries, fostering a pan-Indian identity and consciousness. The National Congress of American Indians provided a unified voice for tribal governments, while new organizations like the National Indian Youth Council, established in 1961, brought younger, more militant perspectives to the struggle. Influenced by the civil rights and anti-war movements, these activists developed new tactics of direct action and media engagement to bring attention to Native issues. The occupation of Alcatraz Island from 1969 to 1971 marked a watershed moment in this new activism. Led by a group calling themselves "Indians of All Tribes," the 19-month occupation captured national attention and inspired similar actions across the country. The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in Minneapolis in 1968 to address urban police brutality, expanded its focus to include treaty rights, religious freedom, and tribal sovereignty. AIM's dramatic protests, including the 1972 "Trail of Broken Treaties" march on Washington and the 71-day armed occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973, forced Native issues onto the national agenda despite often violent government responses. By the mid-1970s, this activism had begun to yield tangible results. President Nixon formally repudiated termination policy in 1970, calling it "morally and legally unacceptable." The Menominee Restoration Act of 1973 restored the tribe's federal recognition, setting a precedent for other terminated tribes. Landmark legislation including the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) established new legal frameworks supporting tribal sovereignty and cultural rights. These developments represented a crucial turning point, as federal policy shifted from attempting to eliminate tribes as distinct political entities to recognizing their inherent right to self-governance.

Chapter 5: Tribal Renaissance: Sovereignty and Cultural Revival (1975-2000)

The last quarter of the 20th century marked a pivotal era for Native American communities as they leveraged new legal frameworks and economic opportunities to rebuild tribal sovereignty. The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 represented a fundamental shift in the relationship between tribes and the federal government. This landmark legislation enabled tribes to contract with federal agencies to administer programs previously managed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Indian Health Service. Many tribes seized this opportunity to take control of their schools, health clinics, housing programs, and natural resource management. Legal victories in federal courts further strengthened tribal sovereignty during this period. The 1978 Supreme Court case United States v. Wheeler affirmed tribes' inherent authority to prosecute their own members for crimes, independent of federal authority. In 1983, the Court's decision in New Mexico v. Mescalero Apache Tribe upheld tribal authority to regulate hunting and fishing on reservation lands. Perhaps most significantly, the 1976 case Bryan v. Itasca County established that states generally lacked regulatory authority over activities on reservations. This ruling would later provide the legal foundation for tribal gaming operations. Indeed, gaming emerged as a transformative economic opportunity for many tribes following the Supreme Court's 1987 decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, which confirmed tribes' right to operate gaming facilities free from state regulation. Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act the following year, establishing a framework for tribal-state compacts and federal oversight. By 2000, tribal gaming had grown into a multi-billion-dollar industry, though its benefits were unevenly distributed. While some small tribes located near urban centers saw dramatic increases in tribal revenue, many reservations in remote areas gained only modest economic benefits. Cultural revitalization accompanied these political and economic developments. The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 formally protected Native Americans' right to practice traditional religions, reversing decades of suppression. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 required federal agencies and federally funded institutions to return Native American cultural items and human remains to their respective tribes. Across the country, language immersion programs sought to preserve indigenous languages that had been targeted for elimination by earlier assimilation policies. The first tribal colleges, established in the 1970s, expanded to form a network of over thirty institutions by the end of the century, providing culturally relevant higher education. The repatriation movement gained significant traction during this period as tribes sought the return of ancestral remains and sacred objects from museums, universities, and private collections. Decades of archaeological excavations and museum collecting practices had resulted in the removal of hundreds of thousands of Native American human remains and cultural items from tribal communities. Grassroots efforts by tribal spiritual leaders and activists led to the passage of the National Museum of the American Indian Act (1989) and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990), establishing legal frameworks for the return of these cultural patrimony items. These repatriation efforts enabled the revival of ceremonies that had been dormant for generations in some communities. Despite these advances, Native communities continued to face significant challenges. Poverty rates remained more than twice the national average, with unemployment on some reservations exceeding 50 percent. Health disparities persisted, with Native Americans experiencing higher rates of diabetes, alcoholism, and suicide than the general population. Environmental issues also plagued many reservations, from toxic waste dumps to resource extraction that damaged sacred sites and traditional food sources. Nevertheless, the self-determination era represented a remarkable turnaround from the termination policies of the mid-20th century, establishing foundations that would enable further advances in tribal sovereignty and well-being in the 21st century.

Chapter 6: Indigenous Nations in the 21st Century (2000-Present)

The dawn of the 21st century has witnessed what many scholars and Native leaders describe as an Indigenous Renaissance—a multifaceted revival of tribal sovereignty, economic power, cultural expression, and political influence. Building on the legal and institutional foundations established in previous decades, Native nations have increasingly asserted themselves as significant players in American society and politics while revitalizing traditional knowledge and practices. Tribal economic development has expanded well beyond gaming to include diverse enterprises. The Southern Ute Indian Tribe of Colorado, for instance, transformed itself from one of the poorest communities in the country to one of the richest through strategic investments in energy development, real estate, and private equity. Many tribes have developed comprehensive economic diversification strategies, establishing construction companies, manufacturing facilities, technology firms, and tourism enterprises. While economic disparities remain significant—with some remote reservations still experiencing unemployment rates above 50 percent—innovative approaches to development have emerged across Indian Country. Legal sovereignty has continued to evolve through important court decisions and legislation. The 2020 Supreme Court case McGirt v. Oklahoma represented a landmark victory, with the Court ruling that much of eastern Oklahoma remains reservation land where the state lacks jurisdiction over crimes involving Native Americans. This decision affirmed that treaties remain the "supreme law of the land" unless explicitly abrogated by Congress. Tribes have also expanded their justice systems, with many developing courts that incorporate traditional indigenous concepts of restorative justice alongside Western legal principles. The Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010 and the 2013 reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act enhanced tribal jurisdiction over certain crimes, partially reversing decades of limitations on tribal authority. Perhaps most significantly, Native Americans have achieved unprecedented visibility and influence in mainstream American society and politics. The 2018 elections saw the first two Native American women elected to Congress—Deb Haaland (Pueblo of Laguna) and Sharice Davids (Ho-Chunk)—with Haaland later becoming the first Native American Cabinet secretary as head of the Department of the Interior in 2021. Indigenous activism has gained international attention through movements like the 2016 Standing Rock protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline, which drew support from environmental and human rights advocates worldwide. Native artists, writers, filmmakers, and musicians have achieved critical acclaim while addressing indigenous themes and perspectives. Digital technologies have transformed how Native communities connect, organize, and represent themselves. Social media platforms enable unprecedented networking among geographically dispersed tribal members and facilitate rapid response to threats against tribal sovereignty. Indigenous content creators use digital platforms to challenge stereotypes and share authentic representations of contemporary Native life, while language revitalization efforts employ apps and online learning tools to reach younger generations. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated these digital adaptations, as tribes developed innovative approaches to remote governance, education, and cultural transmission during lockdowns. Environmental protection has emerged as a key arena for asserting tribal sovereignty, as Native nations increasingly take control of natural resource management on their lands. The Menominee continue their sustainable forestry practices, while the White Mountain Apache have developed innovative watershed management approaches. Tribes lead opposition to environmentally destructive projects that threaten their territories, from pipelines to mining operations near sacred sites. These environmental justice movements draw on traditional ecological knowledge while employing contemporary scientific methods and legal strategies, demonstrating how Indigenous approaches to sustainability can address modern environmental challenges. Challenges certainly remain. Native communities continue to face health disparities, educational inequities, and the intergenerational trauma resulting from centuries of colonization and forced assimilation. Internal conflicts over tribal membership, governance structures, and development priorities sometimes divide Native nations. And the ongoing struggle to protect sacred sites and natural resources from exploitation continues across the country. Nevertheless, the overall trajectory of the 21st century thus far represents a remarkable renaissance for indigenous peoples who, after centuries of policies aimed at their elimination or assimilation, are increasingly thriving on their own terms.

Summary

Throughout the centuries-long narrative of Native American history, a fundamental tension has persisted between external forces seeking to eliminate Indigenous peoples as distinct political and cultural entities and Native communities' remarkable capacity for adaptation and resistance. From the massacre at Wounded Knee through the boarding school era, termination policies, and into the present day, this pattern has repeated: policies of conquest, removal, assimilation, and termination have been met with strategic adaptation, legal challenges, cultural persistence, and innovative forms of activism. What emerges from this historical arc is not a story of inevitable decline but rather one of extraordinary resilience—the ability of Native nations to maintain core cultural values and political sovereignty while adapting to radically changing circumstances. This history offers profound lessons for contemporary society. First, it demonstrates that diversity and pluralism have always been central to the American experience, despite persistent efforts to impose cultural uniformity. The continued existence of 574 federally recognized tribal nations, each with its own culture, language, and governance system, represents an alternative model of nationhood that challenges the homogenizing tendencies of modern nation-states. Second, Indigenous approaches to sustainability, based on relationships of reciprocity with the natural world rather than exploitation, offer crucial perspectives for addressing our current environmental crisis. Finally, the story of Native American survival and resurgence reminds us that history is not predetermined—even in the face of overwhelming power imbalances, communities can preserve their identities and assert their rights through persistent, creative resistance. As we navigate our increasingly complex global challenges, these Indigenous insights about resilience, relationship, and responsibility may prove essential not just for Native peoples but for humanity as a whole.

About Author

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David Treuer

David Treuer is an Ojibwe Indian from Leech Lake Reservation in northern Minnesota. He is the recipient of a Pushcart Prize, and fellowships from the NEH, Bush Foundation, and the Guggenheim Foundation. He divides his time between his home on the Leech Lake Reservation and Minneapolis. He is the author of three novels and a book of criticism. His essays and stories have appeared in Esquire, TriQuarterly, The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, Lucky Peach, the LA Times, and Slate.com.Treuer published his first novel, Little, in 1995. He received his PhD in anthropology and published his second novel, The Hiawatha, in 1999. His third novel The Translation of Dr Apelles and a book of criticism, Native American Fiction; A User's Manual appeared in 2006. The Translation of Dr Apelles was named a Best Book of the Year by The Washington Post, Time Out, and City Pages. REZ LIFE is his newest book and is now out in paperback with Grove Press.

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