The Narrow Corridor

The Narrow Corridor Plot Summary

Introduction

Liberty is a paradoxical concept that requires both the presence and absence of power. Throughout history, societies have struggled to find the delicate balance between having a state powerful enough to maintain order yet constrained enough to prevent tyranny. This fundamental tension shapes our political institutions and determines whether citizens can truly enjoy freedom from fear, violence, and domination. The journey toward liberty is not straightforward. It requires a dynamic equilibrium where state power and social constraints evolve together, creating what might be called a "narrow corridor" where liberty can flourish. Outside this corridor lie two undesirable alternatives: the "despotic leviathan" where an unchecked state crushes society, and the "absent leviathan" where statelessness leads to violence and oppression through different means. By examining diverse historical examples from ancient Athens to modern America, we gain crucial insights into how this balance has been achieved or lost in different contexts, and what this means for our ongoing struggle to preserve liberty in the face of new challenges.

Chapter 1: The Paradox of Liberty: Requiring Both State Power and Constraints

Liberty emerges from a delicate balance between state power and societal control. When these forces exist in equilibrium, neither dominating the other, a "narrow corridor" forms where freedom can flourish. This corridor represents the space where states are strong enough to maintain order and provide services, yet constrained enough by society to prevent despotism. The corridor is not a natural state - it must be actively created and maintained through continuous struggle and negotiation between state institutions and social forces. The dynamics between state and society follow what can be called the "Red Queen effect," named after Lewis Carroll's character who had to keep running just to stay in place. As state power grows, society must develop new mechanisms to control it; as society becomes more complex, the state must evolve new capacities to meet emerging challenges. This dynamic tension, when properly balanced, produces liberty - not as a static achievement but as an ongoing process. When this balance fails, societies fall into either despotism (where the state dominates society) or disorder (where society prevents effective state formation). Outside the corridor, societies face two problematic alternatives. The "Despotic Leviathan" emerges when state power overwhelms societal controls, creating regimes like those in historical absolutist monarchies or modern authoritarian states. These states may achieve economic growth and stability, but at the cost of individual liberty and rights. Alternatively, the "Absent Leviathan" represents situations where society prevents effective state formation altogether, resulting in chronic instability, violence, and underdevelopment as basic public goods cannot be provided. The paradox of liberty lies in its dependence on both state power and constraints. Without a functioning state, individuals remain vulnerable to violence and exploitation by local strongmen or powerful groups. Yet without societal constraints, the state itself becomes the primary threat to freedom. This explains why simplistic approaches that focus exclusively on either building state capacity or limiting government power often fail to produce genuine liberty. Historical evidence demonstrates that liberty flourishes only when both state and society develop in tandem. In ancient Athens, for instance, the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes created institutions that empowered ordinary citizens to check elite power while simultaneously strengthening state capacity. Similarly, the American founding represented an attempt to create a state powerful enough to govern effectively while establishing constitutional constraints to prevent tyranny.

Chapter 2: The Corridor Theory: How Liberty Emerges from Dynamic Equilibrium

The corridor of liberty represents a unique space where state power and societal strength exist in productive tension. This balance doesn't emerge spontaneously but requires specific historical conditions and institutional arrangements. When these conditions are met, a self-reinforcing dynamic develops where state capacity and societal power grow in tandem rather than at each other's expense. Within the corridor, the state develops greater capacity to provide public services, enforce laws, and maintain order. Simultaneously, society develops more effective means to monitor state actions, participate in governance, and resist arbitrary power. This mutual reinforcement creates what can be termed the "Red Queen effect" - a continuous race where both state and society must keep evolving to maintain their relative positions. Like the Red Queen in Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass who tells Alice they must run just to stay in place, state and society must continuously adapt to preserve liberty. The corridor's width varies across societies and historical periods. Some societies enjoy a wider corridor with more room for institutional experimentation and adaptation, while others face a narrower path with less margin for error. Factors affecting this width include geography, resource distribution, external threats, and cultural norms. For example, societies with more dispersed economic resources often have wider corridors because wealth concentration makes it easier for elites to capture state power. Entering the corridor typically requires a fortunate historical juncture where neither state nor society completely dominates the other. In medieval Europe, this occurred through the unique combination of Roman institutional legacies and Germanic tribal traditions of participatory governance. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire created space for new political arrangements while preserving enough institutional memory to prevent complete fragmentation. This allowed European societies to develop states that were simultaneously powerful and constrained. Once inside the corridor, societies face the ongoing challenge of maintaining balance. External threats can push a society toward greater state power at the expense of societal constraints, while internal conflicts can weaken state capacity and lead to fragmentation. The corridor is therefore not a stable equilibrium but a dynamic process requiring continuous adjustment and negotiation between state and societal power. The corridor concept helps explain why similar institutional forms produce different outcomes in different contexts. Democratic constitutions, for instance, function very differently in societies within the corridor compared to those outside it. Outside the corridor, formal democratic institutions often become facades for despotic rule or collapse into dysfunction because the underlying balance between state and society is missing.

Chapter 3: Despotic vs. Shackled Leviathans: Contrasting Paths of State Development

States come in various forms based on their relationship with society. The Despotic Leviathan emerges when state power overwhelms societal controls, creating regimes like those in China, Saudi Arabia, or historical absolutist monarchies. These states may achieve economic growth and stability, but at the cost of individual liberty and rights. They function through hierarchical control, with power concentrated at the top and flowing downward with limited accountability. The Shackled Leviathan, by contrast, exists when state power is balanced by societal constraints. Examples include Western democracies where constitutions, independent courts, free press, and civil society organizations create checks on government power. These states still possess significant capacity to provide public goods and maintain order, but their actions are constrained by societal norms and institutions that limit arbitrary exercise of power. The economic consequences of these different state forms are profound. Despotic Leviathans can achieve impressive growth through forced mobilization of resources, as seen in China's rapid industrialization. However, this growth often proves unsustainable or uneven because it lacks the innovation and adaptability that come from free economic exchange and secure property rights. As Ibn Khaldun observed centuries ago, despotic states initially stimulate growth by establishing peace and basic infrastructure, but eventually succumb to extractive tendencies that undermine long-term development. Shackled Leviathans typically generate more sustainable economic development by combining state capacity with societal constraints. The state provides essential infrastructure, enforces contracts, and maintains stability, while societal controls prevent predatory behavior by elites. This balance creates conditions where entrepreneurs can innovate with reasonable security that their efforts won't be expropriated, while the state retains enough power to coordinate large-scale projects and provide public goods. The historical divergence between these paths often stems from critical junctures where societies faced similar challenges but responded differently. England and Spain in the early modern period illustrate this divergence. Both faced fiscal pressures from warfare, but England's stronger parliamentary traditions constrained royal power and led to more inclusive institutions, while Spain developed more absolutist governance that concentrated power in the monarchy. These institutional differences had profound consequences for subsequent economic and political development. The contrast between despotic and shackled leviathans reveals that state capacity alone doesn't produce liberty or sustainable prosperity. What matters is how that capacity is directed and constrained. When state power serves narrow elite interests without effective societal oversight, it becomes a tool of extraction and domination. When balanced by societal constraints, the same power can provide the foundation for both liberty and broad-based economic development.

Chapter 4: The Red Queen Effect: Continuous Adaptation Between State and Society

The Red Queen effect describes the continuous adaptation between state and society that maintains liberty. When the state expands its power - perhaps by creating new surveillance capabilities or taxation systems - society responds by developing new methods of oversight and resistance. This dynamic creates an evolutionary race where neither side can afford to stand still without risking domination or irrelevance. This process played out dramatically in European history. As monarchs attempted to build stronger states for warfare, societies responded by demanding representative institutions like parliaments. In England, the Magna Carta emerged as barons pushed back against King John's expanding powers. Later, as the state developed more sophisticated bureaucracies, society created new oversight mechanisms, independent courts, and eventually democratic institutions to maintain control. The Red Queen effect requires society to be organized and capable of collective action. In places where society is fragmented by ethnic, religious, or class divisions, it struggles to present a unified front against state power. Similarly, where civil society organizations are weak or co-opted, the state faces less effective resistance to its expansion. This explains why some societies fall out of the corridor - their social institutions lack the capacity to keep pace with evolving state power. The effect also works in reverse - when society becomes too powerful relative to the state, preventing necessary state functions, both sides suffer. The state must develop new capabilities to address emerging challenges like urbanization, industrialization, or external threats. If society blocks this evolution, the result is often chaos and underdevelopment rather than liberty. Modern democracies face new challenges in maintaining this balance. Globalization has constrained national policy autonomy while empowering transnational corporations that can evade democratic accountability. Technological change has created new surveillance capabilities for states while also providing tools for societal organization and resistance. Economic inequality has translated into political inequality, giving wealthy interests disproportionate influence over policy. These developments require new institutional innovations to preserve the dynamic balance between state and society. Digital technologies present particularly complex governance challenges. They simultaneously empower individuals to coordinate action outside traditional institutions while enabling unprecedented state and corporate surveillance. Social media platforms have become de facto public squares governed by private algorithms rather than democratic processes. Maintaining liberty in this environment requires institutional innovation, not just preservation of existing arrangements.

Chapter 5: Beyond the Cage of Norms: Breaking Cultural Constraints on Liberty

Many societies remain trapped outside the corridor due to what can be called a "cage of norms" - cultural and social practices that prevent the emergence of effective states or constrain individual freedom even without state coercion. These norms often evolved as protection against despotism in stateless societies but become obstacles to state formation and individual liberty when circumstances change. Thomas Hobbes famously argued that without a powerful state—a Leviathan—human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." While Hobbes correctly identified the dangers of statelessness, his analysis was incomplete. Many stateless societies have developed elaborate systems of norms and customs to prevent violence and resolve conflicts without centralized authority. These mechanisms effectively prevented the emergence of despotism but at the cost of severely limiting individual freedom and economic development. The cage of norms appears in various forms. In parts of Afghanistan, the Pashtunwali code emphasizes personal honor, revenge, and clan loyalty over submission to central authority. In traditional societies across Africa, accusations of witchcraft often serve to prevent individuals from accumulating wealth or power beyond community norms. In India's caste system, social hierarchies became so rigid that they prevented the formation of broader political identities needed for effective state-society bargaining. These normative cages served important functions in their original contexts. They provided governance in the absence of states, protected individuals from exploitation, and maintained social cohesion. However, they become problematic when societies need to develop more complex political organizations to address new challenges like economic development, urbanization, or external threats. Women are often particularly constrained by these normative cages, subjected to male authority and denied basic freedoms. Economic innovation is stifled because accumulation of wealth can trigger accusations of witchcraft or demands for redistribution. The resulting societies may avoid Hobbesian violence but remain trapped in poverty and social stagnation. Breaking out of the cage of norms requires cultural evolution alongside institutional change. This process is often painful and contested, as it disrupts established social hierarchies and identities. Successful transitions typically involve adapting rather than abandoning traditional norms - finding ways to incorporate valuable aspects of traditional governance into modern state structures while discarding elements that prevent effective state-society bargaining. The experience of Somaliland (northern Somalia) illustrates this possibility. Traditional clan elders provided the societal foundation for a new state, participating in negotiations that established central institutions while ensuring these remained accountable to clan interests. The resulting hybrid system combined modern state functions with traditional mechanisms of societal control, allowing for greater liberty while maintaining cultural continuity.

Chapter 6: Economic Consequences: How State-Society Balance Shapes Development

The balance between state and society profoundly shapes economic development. Different state-society configurations create distinctive patterns of economic organization, innovation, and distribution that determine whether societies achieve sustained prosperity or remain trapped in poverty and stagnation. Despotic Leviathans can achieve impressive growth through forced mobilization of resources, as seen in China's rapid industrialization or the early Islamic caliphates that unified vast territories under common rule. Initially, despotic states often stimulate economic growth by establishing peace, enforcing property rights, and investing in infrastructure. This "despotic growth" enabled agricultural innovation and commercial expansion in many historical contexts. However, this growth proves unsustainable because despotic rulers inevitably succumb to the temptation to extract more resources from society. As rulers and their courtiers demand more tribute, impose higher taxes, and grant themselves monopolies, economic incentives deteriorate. Ibn Khaldun observed that "at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large revenue from small assessments. At the end of the dynasty, taxation yields a small revenue from large assessments." This pattern has repeated throughout history, from ancient empires to modern authoritarian regimes. The economic limitations of despotism stem from its fundamental nature. Without societal constraints, rulers have little incentive to maintain the institutions that initially fostered growth. They can arbitrarily change rules, confiscate property, and create monopolies for themselves and their allies. This unpredictability undermines investment and innovation. Moreover, despotic states typically restrict economic opportunities to a narrow elite, wasting the talents and potential contributions of the broader population. Shackled Leviathans, by contrast, create conditions for sustained economic prosperity. When state power is balanced by societal control, economies develop distinctive characteristics that foster innovation and broad-based growth. The Italian communes of the late medieval period vividly illustrate these dynamics. In cities like Florence, Siena, and Genoa, republican governments emerged where power was exercised by elected officials constrained by representative councils. These balanced political institutions created unprecedented economic opportunities, allowing for greater social mobility and innovation. The economic success of societies in the corridor stems from three key factors. First, the Shackled Leviathan provides security and enforces rules impartially, creating predictability for economic actors. Second, it maintains broad-based economic opportunities rather than restricting them to elites. Third, it provides public services and infrastructure that support economic activity while allowing society to direct these investments toward genuine needs rather than rulers' vanity projects. Modern economies face new challenges in maintaining this balance. Globalization has created complex supply chains that transcend national boundaries, making traditional state regulation more difficult. Technological change has disrupted established industries while creating new forms of economic activity that existing institutions struggle to govern effectively. Addressing these challenges requires institutional innovation that preserves the essential balance between state capacity and societal control in a changing economic landscape.

Chapter 7: Pathways to Liberty: How Societies Enter and Remain in the Corridor

Several societies have successfully navigated paths into the corridor from different starting points. These transitions offer important lessons about the conditions and strategies that enable movement toward liberty. While there is no universal formula, certain patterns emerge from comparative historical analysis. From Despotic Leviathans, the path typically involves society gradually gaining power to constrain the state without destroying its capacity. South Korea's transition from military dictatorship to democracy exemplifies this route. As industrialization created new social classes with economic power, they gradually demanded political representation. The state retained its developmental capacity while becoming increasingly accountable to societal demands through competitive elections, independent courts, and press freedom. From Absent Leviathans, the path requires building state capacity while simultaneously developing societal controls. The experience of Somaliland illustrates this possibility. Traditional clan elders provided the societal foundation for a new state, participating in negotiations that established central institutions while ensuring these remained accountable to clan interests. The resulting hybrid system combined modern state functions with traditional mechanisms of societal control. Western Europe's entry into the corridor resulted from a unique historical conjunction that created a balance between state and society. This balance emerged from what can be called the "European scissors"—two distinct historical forces that, when combined, created the conditions for the Shackled Leviathan to emerge. The first blade was the participatory political tradition of Germanic tribes with their assembly-based governance. The second blade was the institutional legacy of the Roman Empire with its sophisticated concepts of bureaucratic administration and territorial governance. When these two traditions merged, they created something greater than either could have achieved alone. The path into the corridor is neither predetermined nor irreversible. Some societies enter it through fortunate historical circumstances or deliberate institutional design, while others remain trapped in despotism or statelessness. Even societies within the corridor can be pushed out by economic crises, external threats, or internal conflicts that disrupt the balance between state and society. Maintaining liberty requires continuous adaptation to new challenges. As societies face unprecedented issues from technological change to climate crisis, both state and society must develop new capabilities and relationships. The state needs greater capacity to address complex problems, but society must simultaneously develop new means of monitoring and directing this capacity. This ongoing process explains why liberty is never fully secured but must be constantly defended and reinvented. The future of liberty depends on forging new coalitions and compromises that can sustain the state-society balance in changing conditions. Historical transitions into the corridor have typically involved broad coalitions that cross class, sectoral, and sometimes ethnic divisions. These coalitions succeed when they offer credible benefits to diverse groups while preventing any single faction from dominating. Similar coalition-building will be necessary to address contemporary challenges to liberty in an increasingly complex world.

Summary

The fate of liberty hinges on a delicate balance of power between state and society—a narrow corridor where neither dominates the other. Outside this corridor, societies suffer either from the cage of norms in stateless conditions or from the dominance of a despotic state. Within it, the constant competition between state and society creates the conditions for both to grow stronger while checking each other's excesses. This dynamic relationship, the Red Queen effect, explains why liberty cannot be engineered through constitutional design alone but requires ongoing societal vigilance and participation. The historical evidence reveals that liberty emerges through messy, contingent processes rather than following predetermined paths. Different societies have found their way into the corridor through unique historical circumstances, from the assembly politics of Germanic tribes to the republican institutions of Italian communes. What unites these diverse experiences is the fundamental balance they achieved—a state powerful enough to maintain order and provide public services, yet constrained by a society capable of monitoring and directing that power. This balance creates not just political freedom but also the conditions for sustained economic prosperity by ensuring broad-based opportunities and incentives for innovation.

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Daron Acemoğlu

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