The Sum of Us

The Sum of Us Plot Summary

Introduction

The zero-sum paradigm—the belief that progress for people of color must come at white people's expense—has shaped American society from its founding through today. This powerful yet false narrative has repeatedly undermined efforts to build shared prosperity and strengthen democratic institutions. When racial progress is framed as a threat rather than a benefit to white Americans, it becomes nearly impossible to create the cross-racial coalitions needed to address collective challenges from economic inequality to climate change. Moving beyond this destructive framework requires understanding how racism functions as a strategic weapon that ultimately harms everyone. Through meticulous historical analysis and contemporary case studies, we see how racial hierarchy has repeatedly led to the abandonment of public goods, the creation of inefficient economic systems, and the erosion of democratic governance. By examining moments when Americans have rejected zero-sum thinking to build cross-racial solidarity, we discover a powerful alternative vision—one where addressing racial injustice creates concrete benefits across demographic lines and unlocks solutions to our most pressing shared problems.

Chapter 1: The Zero-Sum Paradigm: Origins and Persistence of Racial Hierarchy

At the heart of America's persistent racial divisions lies what psychologists call a "zero-sum" mindset—the belief that progress for people of color must come at white people's expense. This framework has shaped American society from its founding through today, creating a false narrative that racial equality threatens white Americans rather than benefits all. The zero-sum paradigm emerged during America's colonial period as a deliberate strategy. When Bacon's Rebellion in 1676 united poor whites and Blacks against the elite, Virginia's ruling class responded by creating racial categories and privileges for whites to prevent future cross-racial alliances. By establishing whiteness as a status with legal protections, elites effectively convinced poor whites that their interests aligned more with wealthy whites than with Black people in similar economic circumstances. This strategy transformed American society by embedding a racial hierarchy that benefited the wealthy while offering psychological wages to poor whites. As historian Edmund Morgan observed, racism made it possible to exploit the labor of both enslaved Blacks and poor whites while preventing them from recognizing their common interests. White people were taught to measure their status not by material well-being but by comparison to Black people's subordination. The zero-sum framework continues to shape contemporary politics. Research by Michael Norton and Samuel Sommers found that many white Americans perceive racial equality as a loss—when asked about anti-Black and anti-white bias over time, white respondents believed that as anti-Black bias decreased, anti-white bias increased proportionally, as if discrimination were a fixed resource that merely changed targets rather than diminishing overall. This mindset has profound economic consequences. Politicians exploit racial anxieties to win support for economic policies that primarily benefit the wealthy while harming most Americans of all races. The zero-sum paradigm blinds many white voters to how they are being harmed by the very policies they support. As numerous examples demonstrate, racism has functioned as a powerful tool to undermine support for public goods and economic policies that would benefit the vast majority of Americans.

Chapter 2: Drained Public Goods: When Racism Destroys Shared Resources

Throughout American history, racism has repeatedly led to the destruction of public goods and services that benefit everyone. This phenomenon is vividly illustrated by what happened to public swimming pools in the mid-twentieth century. When courts ordered pools to integrate, many towns and cities chose to close them entirely rather than allow Black and white citizens to swim together. In Montgomery, Alabama, city officials drained the Oak Park pool in 1959 rather than integrate it, filling it with dirt and planting flowers in its center. This wasn't an isolated incident—hundreds of public pools across America were closed, sold to private entities, or simply abandoned in response to integration orders. The message was clear: white communities would rather eliminate public resources entirely than share them with Black citizens. This pattern extends far beyond swimming pools. Public education funding faced similar challenges when integration threatened white exclusivity. Following Brown v. Board of Education, many Southern communities established private "segregation academies" for white students while systematically defunding public schools. The tax revolt movement that began in the 1970s—exemplified by California's Proposition 13—gained momentum partly from white resistance to funding schools that served increasingly diverse student populations. The most consequential application of this dynamic occurred in the realm of government itself. As civil rights legislation expanded Black political participation in the 1960s, conservative strategists developed what became known as the "Southern Strategy"—using coded racial appeals to build white opposition to government programs. Though rarely explicitly racist, this messaging associated government benefits with undeserving minorities, despite white Americans being the largest beneficiary group of most social programs. The consequences of this pattern have been devastating for American society. The United States now has fewer public resources than most developed nations—from healthcare to education to transportation infrastructure. This scarcity affects Americans of all races, though often with disproportionate impacts on communities of color. The zero-sum racial framework has repeatedly led white Americans to vote against their economic interests when they perceive policies as benefiting racial minorities. Breaking this pattern requires recognizing that public goods benefit everyone. When communities invest in shared resources—whether pools, schools, or healthcare systems—they create value that exceeds what individuals could purchase privately. The historical evidence demonstrates that racial progress and economic prosperity are complementary, not competing, goals.

Chapter 3: Economic Costs: How Racial Discrimination Undermines Prosperity

The 2008 financial crisis revealed how racism in economic systems ultimately creates instability that harms everyone. The subprime mortgage disaster that triggered the Great Recession emerged from predatory lending practices that initially targeted Black homeowners before expanding to affect the broader market. This pattern illustrates how discrimination, beyond its obvious moral failures, creates economic inefficiencies and risks that eventually impact the entire system. The origins of the crisis lay in decades of housing discrimination. Following World War II, federal policies systematically excluded Black Americans from homeownership opportunities through redlining and discriminatory lending. By the 1990s, this exclusion had created a separate and unequal credit market where Black borrowers—even those with good credit—were steered toward subprime loans with higher interest rates and predatory terms. Companies like Wells Fargo and Countrywide Financial maintained separate marketing strategies for minority communities, with loan officers referring to subprime products as "ghetto loans" for "mud people." What began as targeted exploitation of Black communities soon expanded. By the mid-2000s, the financial industry had discovered the profitability of predatory lending and began extending these practices to borrowers of all races. Studies show that by 2006, over 60% of subprime borrowers actually qualified for conventional loans but were steered toward more expensive products. The securitization of these mortgages spread risk throughout the financial system, ultimately triggering a global economic crisis when the housing bubble burst. The consequences were devastating across racial lines. The Great Recession destroyed 8.7 million jobs and $19.2 trillion in household wealth. While Black and Latino homeowners experienced disproportionate foreclosure rates, millions of white families also lost homes and savings. The economic recovery further exacerbated inequality, with corporate profits recovering quickly while household wealth remained depressed for years, especially for younger Americans who entered the workforce during this period. This pattern—where discrimination against minorities creates systemic risks that eventually harm everyone—appears in multiple economic contexts. Research shows that occupational segregation and wage discrimination reduce overall economic productivity by misallocating human capital. Studies estimate that eliminating racial gaps in income would increase GDP by trillions of dollars through increased consumption and innovation. These findings contradict zero-sum thinking by demonstrating how racial equality creates economic benefits for all. The financial crisis also revealed regulatory failures stemming from the dismissal of early warnings from advocates in communities of color. Civil rights organizations had identified predatory lending practices years before the crisis but were largely ignored by regulators who viewed these as niche "minority issues" rather than systemic threats. This institutional blindness to problems affecting marginalized communities prevented timely intervention that could have mitigated the broader crisis.

Chapter 4: Democratic Erosion: Racism's Threat to Collective Governance

America has never had a true democracy. From its founding, the nation's democratic institutions were compromised by racial exclusion. The Constitution itself contained multiple provisions protecting slavery, including the Three-fifths Compromise and the Electoral College, which gave slave states disproportionate power. Property requirements initially limited voting to wealthy white men, and when these restrictions were lifted in the 1820s-40s, they were often replaced with explicit racial barriers. This established a pattern where white equality was purchased with white supremacy. After the Civil War, a brief period of multiracial democracy during Reconstruction was violently suppressed. White supremacists implemented literacy tests, poll taxes, and other barriers ostensibly aimed at Black voters but which also disenfranchised many poor whites. In Mississippi, turnout among eligible white voters fell dramatically after these restrictions were implemented. The result was a less representative government that served a narrow elite rather than the broader public. This anti-democratic pattern continues today in more sophisticated forms. Since 2013, when the Supreme Court gutted the Voting Rights Act in Shelby County v. Holder, states have implemented numerous voting restrictions targeting people of color but affecting many white voters as well. Voter ID laws, registration purges, and polling place closures create barriers for millions of Americans. In Ohio, a purge process removed hundreds of thousands of registered voters, including white Navy veteran Larry Harmon, who was shocked to discover he'd been deregistered for missing a few elections. These attacks on voting rights are not isolated incidents but part of a coordinated strategy funded by wealthy interests. A network of organizations backed by billionaires like Charles Koch has promoted legislation making it harder to vote while simultaneously fighting campaign finance regulations. Their goal is a smaller, less representative electorate that won't challenge concentrated wealth and power. While not explicitly racial in intent, this movement exploits racial divisions and stereotypes to advance its agenda. The irony is that when civil rights victories expanded democracy in the 1960s, white Americans benefited alongside Black citizens. The elimination of poll taxes increased white voter participation in the South. More competitive elections forced politicians to address economic development and education rather than relying solely on racial appeals. Public investment increased, improving infrastructure and services for all residents. True democracy creates a solidarity dividend that crosses racial lines. Today's campaign finance system represents another form of democratic erosion with racial implications. The donor class that funds American politics is overwhelmingly white, wealthy, and male in a diversifying nation. Their preferences dominate policy outcomes while the needs of ordinary Americans go unaddressed. This system functions as a modern property requirement for political influence, excluding most Americans regardless of race while disproportionately silencing communities of color.

Chapter 5: Social Division: The Human Cost of Living Apart

America remains profoundly segregated, with the typical white person living in a neighborhood that is at least 75 percent white. This separation isn't natural or accidental but the result of deliberate government policies spanning generations. Federal agencies required racial covenants in housing contracts, denied mortgages to Black applicants through redlining, and designed highway systems that isolated communities of color. Even after explicit segregation was outlawed, exclusionary zoning laws that restricted apartment buildings and smaller homes effectively maintained racial separation through economic means. The persistence of segregation exacts a heavy toll on all Americans, including white people who might believe they benefit from it. White children raised in segregated environments develop significant deficits in cross-cultural competence, empathy, and critical thinking. They absorb harmful stereotypes that distort their understanding of society and leave them ill-equipped for an increasingly diverse world. Research shows that white students in integrated schools develop stronger critical thinking skills and greater comfort with complexity—intellectual advantages that benefit them throughout life. Segregation also creates economic inefficiencies that harm everyone. Housing segregation drives up costs by artificially restricting supply and creating bidding wars for homes in certain neighborhoods. It leads to duplicative infrastructure as communities build separate schools, libraries, and recreation centers rather than sharing resources. Transportation costs increase as jobs and housing become misaligned, forcing longer commutes. One study estimated that racial segregation costs the average metropolitan area billions in lost economic output. Beyond material costs, segregation undermines social cohesion and democratic functioning. When people live in homogeneous environments, they have fewer opportunities to develop the trust and understanding necessary for collective problem-solving. Political polarization intensifies as Americans increasingly live in information bubbles reinforced by geographic separation. This makes it harder to build the broad coalitions needed to address shared challenges like climate change, economic inequality, and public health crises. The COVID-19 pandemic illustrated how segregation undermines public health for everyone. Initial outbreaks in Black and Latino communities were dismissed by many white Americans as someone else's problem, delaying crucial containment measures. As the virus spread across demographic lines, the lack of social solidarity hampered the coordinated response needed to control transmission. Countries with stronger social cohesion implemented more effective public health measures and experienced lower death rates. Integration offers substantial benefits for all participants. Research on diverse schools shows that white students perform just as well academically while gaining crucial social and cognitive skills. Diverse workplaces produce more innovation and better decision-making. Communities that successfully integrate tend to have stronger economies, better public services, and more responsive governments. The evidence suggests that segregation represents a massive misallocation of human potential that diminishes society as a whole.

Chapter 6: Solidarity Dividends: Benefits of Cross-Racial Cooperation

When people from different racial backgrounds unite around common interests, they can achieve remarkable victories that benefit everyone. These "solidarity dividends" demonstrate the tangible benefits that emerge when Americans move beyond zero-sum thinking to pursue shared goals across racial lines. Labor organizing provides powerful examples of solidarity dividends. Historically, employers have used racial divisions to undermine worker power, pitting white workers against people of color to prevent unified demands for better conditions. This strategy proved devastatingly effective in the American South, where racial antagonism helped maintain lower wages and weaker labor protections that ultimately affected workers of all races. The region's anti-union environment eventually pulled down labor standards nationwide as companies relocated to southern states with fewer protections. Contemporary labor movements have found success by explicitly addressing racial divisions. The Fight for $15 campaign began with fast-food workers in New York City but quickly expanded nationwide by connecting racial justice with economic demands. By acknowledging how racism shaped labor markets while emphasizing shared economic interests, organizers built multiracial coalitions that have won minimum wage increases benefiting over 22 million workers of all backgrounds. These victories demonstrate how addressing racial equity creates pathways to economic gains that would otherwise remain blocked. Similar dynamics appear in rural communities facing demographic change. In Lewiston, Maine—one of America's whitest states—an influx of Somali refugees initially triggered xenophobic backlash. However, over time, many residents recognized how these newcomers revitalized a declining town by opening businesses, joining the workforce, and enriching community life. The high school soccer team, composed of players from six countries, won multiple state championships while becoming a source of town pride. This evolution from hostility to cooperation demonstrates how cross-racial solidarity can create benefits in unexpected contexts. Voting rights and democracy reform offer another arena for solidarity dividends. Efforts to restrict voting access have primarily targeted communities of color but ultimately affect Americans across racial lines. Voter purges in states like Ohio remove eligible voters of all backgrounds from registration rolls, while barriers like limited polling places create challenges for rural and urban voters alike. Cross-racial coalitions advocating for expanded voting access have secured reforms like automatic voter registration that make democracy more accessible for everyone. Public financing of elections provides a particularly clear example of solidarity dividends. When Connecticut implemented a system allowing candidates to run without depending on wealthy donors, it dramatically diversified who could successfully run for office. The reform enabled candidates like Gary Holder-Winfield, a Black community organizer from a working-class background, to win election and champion policies benefiting constituents across racial lines. By reducing the influence of money in politics, the system created more responsive governance for all residents.

Chapter 7: Beyond Zero-Sum: Reframing Racial Progress as Collective Gain

Creating a more equitable society requires policies that explicitly address racial hierarchy while building universal systems that benefit everyone. This dual approach—targeting racial disparities while expanding shared prosperity—offers the most promising path toward healing America's divisions and creating sustainable economic progress. Housing policy exemplifies this approach. The racial wealth gap—where the typical white family has eight times the wealth of the typical Black family—largely stems from historical exclusion from homeownership opportunities. Targeted interventions like down payment assistance for residents of formerly redlined neighborhoods would help close this gap while acknowledging specific historical harms. Meanwhile, reforming the mortgage interest deduction—which currently provides the largest benefits to wealthy homeowners—could fund more equitable housing supports benefiting Americans across racial lines. Climate policy similarly requires both targeted and universal approaches. Environmental justice communities that have borne disproportionate pollution burdens need specific investments in remediation and clean infrastructure. Simultaneously, comprehensive climate legislation could create millions of good jobs while protecting everyone from escalating environmental threats. The Green New Deal framework exemplifies this approach by linking climate action with economic justice and targeted investments in frontline communities. Democratic reforms represent another essential pathway. Expanding voting access, implementing public financing of elections, and ending gerrymandering would create a more representative democracy responsive to all citizens. These structural changes would enable policy solutions currently blocked by a political system that overrepresents wealthy, predominantly white interests. Research consistently shows that when democracy becomes more inclusive, policy outcomes better reflect the needs of ordinary people across racial lines. Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation (TRHT) processes offer a framework for addressing historical harms while building new cross-racial understanding. Unlike traditional reconciliation efforts, TRHT explicitly acknowledges that America needs transformation rather than restoration, given that racial hierarchy was present from the nation's founding. Communities implementing TRHT processes—from Dallas, Texas, to Kalamazoo, Michigan—have created spaces for honest conversation about racial history while developing concrete plans to address contemporary inequities. These approaches challenge both conservative colorblindness and liberal incrementalism. Colorblind policies that ignore racial disparities inevitably reproduce them, while narrowly targeted programs often lack the political sustainability needed for transformative change. The most promising path combines race-conscious interventions to address specific harms with universal programs designed to lift all communities. This approach recognizes that racial equity and shared prosperity are complementary rather than competing goals. Ultimately, transformative policy requires reimagining who "we" are as Americans. The zero-sum paradigm has repeatedly undermined collective well-being by suggesting that racial progress must come at white Americans' expense. The evidence demonstrates the opposite—that addressing racial hierarchy creates opportunities for shared advancement that would otherwise remain blocked.

Summary

The zero-sum paradigm that positions racial progress as detrimental to white Americans represents perhaps the most consequential misunderstanding in American economic and political life. This false narrative has repeatedly led to policy choices that undermine shared prosperity and weaken democratic institutions. The evidence consistently demonstrates that racial hierarchy imposes costs on everyone—from the inefficiencies of segregated housing markets to the instability of discriminatory financial systems to the political paralysis preventing climate action. When Americans have moved beyond zero-sum thinking to build cross-racial coalitions, they have achieved remarkable victories that benefit people across racial lines. Moving forward requires both moral clarity about historical injustices and practical recognition of our interconnected fate. The solidarity dividends that emerge from cross-racial cooperation offer tangible benefits that purely self-interested approaches cannot achieve. This isn't merely idealistic thinking but pragmatic recognition that addressing racial hierarchy creates pathways to solving collective challenges that would otherwise remain intractable. By rejecting the zero-sum paradigm and embracing a more inclusive vision of national identity, Americans can build systems that harness our full potential rather than remaining trapped in patterns that ultimately harm everyone.

About Author

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Heather McGhee

Heather Charisse McGhee is an American political commentator and strategist. She is a former president and currently a distinguished senior fellow of Demos, a non-profit progressive U.S. think tank. McGhee is a regular contributor to NBC News and frequently appears as a guest and panelist on Meet the Press, All In with Chris Hayes, and Real Time with Bill Maher.

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